[6] In 1923 more than 100.

149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.

• Ia = some sort of, some, a, an.
• Ĉia = every (each) kind of, every sort of.
• Kia = what a! what kind of? of what kind, ... as.
• Nenia = no, no such, no kind of, of no kind, not any kind of.
• Ia ajn, of any kind (whatever).
• Tia = such a, that kind of, of that kind.
• Tia ... kia = such ... as.

Examples.—Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have you not some book which will explain that?

Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how to do it.

Ekster ĉia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.

Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books.

Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.

Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.

Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems.

Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas = I gave him the book such as it was.

Kiun aĝon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?)

Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather?

Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.

Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!

Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)?

Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so.

Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.

Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).

Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the monument such as they described.

Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the same as your brother’s.

N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in U.

Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want? Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man. Ĉiaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ĉiuj libroj = All (or, all the) books. Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.

[8] Dr. Zamenhof died at Warsaw on April 14th, 1917.

262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Examples.—Somero kaj Vintro = Summer and Winter. Tage aŭ nokte = By day or by night. Li diras, ke vi estas mallaborema = He says that you are lazy. Li estas fiera, sed vi estas humila = He is proud, but you are humble.

94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest student who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.

It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.

Alphabet.

The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1–4.

N.B.—Printing offices which do not possess the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.

Alfabeto.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.

Rimarko.—Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, povas anstataŭ ili uzi ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

Rules.

I.

The Article.—There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (la), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

N.B.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.

(See pars. 96–102.)

Reguloj.

I.

Artikolo nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (la), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.

Rimarko.—La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.

II.

The Substantive.—Substantives have the termination o. For the formation of the plural the termination j is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination n. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by de, the dative by al, the ablative by per or other prepositions according to sense).

(See pars. 103–106.)

II.

La substantivoj havas la finiĝon o. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon j. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finiĝo n. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per de, la dativo per al, la ablativo per per aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).

III.

The Adjective.—The adjective ends in a. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word pli, the superlative by plej; with the comparative the conjunction ol is used.

(See pars 107–114.)

III.

La adjektivo finiĝas per a. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto pli, la superlativo per plej; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion ol.

IV.

The Numerals.—The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple—the suffix -obl, for the fractional—on, for the collective—op, for the distributive—the word po. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used.

(See pars. 115–124.)

IV.

La numeraloj fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj—la sufikson -obl, por la nombronaj—on, por la kolektaj—op, por la disdividaj—la vorton po. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj.

V.

The Pronouns.—Personal pronouns = mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (referring to thing or animal), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(See pars. 125–138.)

V.

Pronomoj personaj: mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (pri objekto aŭ besto), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.

VI.

The Verb.—The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination -as; the past tense (the time been, or having been) -is; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) -os; the Conditional mood -us; the Imperative (ordering) mood -u; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood -i. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present -ant; active past -int; active future -ont; passive present -at; passive past -it; passive future -ot. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb esti and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is de.

(See pars. 159–237.)

VI.

La verbo ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon -as; la tempo estinta -is; la tempo estonta -os; la modo kondiĉa -us; la modo ordona -u; la modo sendifina -i. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva estinta -int; aktiva estonta -ont; pasiva estanta -at; pasiva estinta -it; pasiva estonta -ot. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo esti kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo estas de.

VII.

The Adverb.—Adverbs end in e; degrees of comparison as with adjectives.

(See pars. 238–248.)

VII.

La adverboj finiĝas per e; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.

VIII.

The Preposition.—All prepositions require the nominative.

(See pars. 249–261.)

VIII.

Ĉiuj prepozicioj postulas la nominativon.

IX.

Pronunciation.—Every word is read as it is written.

(See pars. 5–19.)

IX.

Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.

X.

Accent.—The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.

(See par. 17.)

X.

La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.

XI.

Compound Words.—Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(See pars. 39–50.)

XI.

Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.

XII.

Negation.—When another negative word is present the word ne is omitted.

(See pars. 59–62.)

XII.

Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata.

XIII.

Direction.—In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative.

(See par. 67.)

XIII.

Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.

XIV.

Use of Prepositions.—Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition je, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition je we can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(See par. 251.)

XIV.

Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion je, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio je oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.

XV.

Foreign Words.—The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(See pars. 39, 52.)

XV.

La tiel nomataj vortoj fremdaj, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.

XVI.

Elision.—The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

(See pars. 56, 57.)

XVI.

La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.

9. The vowel A is sounded like "ah!" or the a in "father"; I like ee in "seen"; U like oo in "fool."

As regards the vowels E and O, we have no words in English exactly expressing their true sounds. The correct sound of E is something midway between the vowels heard in "bale" and "bell," and that of O something midway between those heard in "dole" and "doll," viz., "eh!" (cut short) and "oh!" (cut short), but without the prolonged sound heard in these words. In the vowel E there should be no trace of the ee sound heard in "cake"; its true sound is much nearer to the e in "bell." The vowel O approaches to the sound of o in "for," or of aw in "law."

In the scheme of pronunciation (par. 19) we have therefore used ah for A; eh for E; ee for I; o for O; oo for U.

N.B.—Do not clip or drag the vowels.

103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is formed by the addition of N. In the plural it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is formed by adding N to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—

• Arb-o = a tree (nominative, singular).
• Arb-on = a tree (accusative, singular).
• Arb-oj = trees (nominative, plural).
• Arb-ojn = trees (accusative, plural).

Examples.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy. La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino = A girl. La knabino = The girl.

125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:—(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.

As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139–157), so under the head of "Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.

238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination E. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.

[1] The Third Assembly of the League of Nations, held at Geneva in September, 1922, unanimously adopted an exhaustive Report favourable to Esperanto.

159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same.

249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other thing, action, or quality.

Examples.—La riveroj fluas al la oceano = Rivers flow towards the ocean. Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo = He eats before midday. Nia domo staras ekster la arbetaro = Our house stands outside the plantation.

[4] International Congresses, at which Esperanto was the only language used, have been held at Boulogne-sur-Mer (1905), Geneva (1906), Cambridge (1907), Dresden (1908), Barcelona (1909), Washington (1910), Antwerp (1911), Cracow (1912), Berne (1913), Paris (1914), San Francisco (1915), The Hague (1920), Prague (1921), Helsingfors (1922), and Nurnberg (1923). A Conference of educationists was held in 1922 at the Secretariat of the League of Nations in Geneva, at which twenty-eight countries and sixteen governments were represented; and in 1923 a Commercial Conference was held at Venice, to which over 200 commercial and touring associations from twenty-three countries sent delegates. At both of these conferences, Esperanto was the only language used.

[2] The Universala Esperanto-Asocio (U.E.A.), with headquarters at 12, Boulevard du Théâtre, Geneva, has a world-wide organization with delegates (or consuls, as they are sometimes called) in over 1000 towns in thirty-nine countries who render important international services.

40. To show the manner in which words are formed in Esperanto, it will perhaps be better first to do so in Dr. Zamenhof’s own words, as given on page 248 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio." He says:—

"I arranged a complete dismemberment of ideas into independent words, so that the whole language, instead of being words in various grammatical forms, consists solely of unchangeable words. If you will take a work written in my language, you will find that each word is always in one constant form, namely, in that form in which it is printed in the dictionary, and that the various grammatical forms, reciprocal relation between words, etc., etc., are expressed by the union of unchanging words. But, because such a construction of language is quite strange to Europeans, I adapted this dismemberment of the language to the spirit of the European languages, so that anyone learning mine from a manual would not suppose that it differed in construction from his own. Take, for example, the word fratino, which in reality consists of three words, frat, in, o. Frat gives the idea of the offspring[9] of one’s parents, in the idea of the female sex, and o the idea of existence (person or thing), hence a noun. These three ideas combined, in Esperanto, make fratino = a sister. The first and last make frato = a brother. The instruction book shows this in the following manner:—Brother = frat-, but because every substantive in the nominative ends in o, therefore frato = brother. For the formation of the feminine, the little word -in- is inserted, therefore fratino = sister. In this way, the dismemberment of the language in no way embarrasses the learner; he does not even suspect that that which he calls a prefix, or suffix, or termination, is really an independent word, which always preserves its meaning, no matter whether it be used at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, or independently, and that every word, with equal right, can be used as a root word or grammatical particle."

Footnote:

[9] It must be remembered that all roots or root-words in Esperanto are either sexless, or have only the sex naturally belonging to the root, unless the feminine suffix—IN—be added. For instance, vir- gives the idea of "man" (male), therefore viro = a man; and we always speak of viro as li = he, because we are sure the noun refers to the male sex. But the root infan- gives only the idea of a "child" (neuter), so, unless we actually know the child is a male, we speak of infano = child as ĝi = it, just as we do in English. When a suffix denoting a person, such as -estr-, -ist-, -ul-, is added to a root, the noun is sexless, or may be presumed to be masculine, unless the feminine -in- be also added.

[5] The most notable example of a modern treaty was the Treaty of Peace signed at Versailles in 1919. It was executed in French and English; but not long afterwards questions of the interpretation of certain parts of it were raised, based upon alleged divergencies of meaning in the two texts.

[7] The Esperanto Association of North America (Inc.), 507, Pierce Buildings, Copley Square, Boston 17 (Mass.), U.S.A., incorporates the English-speaking Esperantists of North America. There are also similar associations in the British Colonies.

8. Vowels.—There are no short vowels in Esperanto, as heard in the words bat, bet, bit, pot, but. All vowels should be of medium length, but it is well to begin by sounding them long (see note, page 12).

107. The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is added to A to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of N to the singular or plural termination.

Examples.—Forta = Strong. Saĝa = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta homo = A strong man. Saĝa patro = A wise father. Saĝaj patroj = Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj = The brave sons.

[3] A book list containing titles of hundreds of translations and original works in Esperanto may be had from the British Esperanto Association (Incorporated).

[10] Not only combinations of letters, but each vowel (as already shown in the case of O), conveys an idea, and is therefore, technically speaking, a word; for instance—

108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:—(a) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative (predikateca).

(a). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).

Examples.—Johano havas bonan panon = John has good bread. Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn = William sharpened the blunt knives.

(b). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).

Examples.—La pomo estas bona = The apple is good. Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally esti. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:—William found (that) the knives (are) blunt—Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj. If we elide ke and estas, the substantive takes the accusative (tranĉilojn) and the adjective (malakraj) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:—La kutimo faris lin (ke li estu) indiferenta por tio ĉi (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro? (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis).

256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.—As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition, then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with the following rules:—

(a). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that prepositions govern that case.

(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative (par. 67).

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

Indefinite.

,

or

.

and

.

Negative.

Demonstrative.

Kind of

(adjectival)

some (any) kind or sort of

some (any)

of some kind

every kind of

every

of every kind

what kind of?

of what kind?

what a!

... as

no kind of

no, no such

of no kind

(not any kind of)

that kind of

such a

of that kind

Reason for

(adverbial)

for some (any) reason or cause

for every reason/cause

for all reasons

for what reason/cause

why? wherefore

for no reason/cause

for that reason/cause

therefore

(adverbial)

at some (any) time

ever

once

always

every time

for all time

ever

at what time?

when

at no time

never

at that time

then

(adverbial)

in some (any) place

somewhere

(anywhere)

in every place

everywhere

in what place

where

in no place

nowhere

(not anywhere)

in that place

there

yonder

(adverbial)

in some manner/way

somehow (anyhow)

(in any manner)

(in) every manner/way

(in) every way

all ways

in what manner/way

how?

... as

like

in no manner/way

nohow

by no means

not at all

in that manner/way

thus, so, like (that)

as ...

in such a manner

(pronominal)

somebody’s

(someone’s)

(anyone’s)

everybody’s

everyone’s

each one’s

of each, of all

whose

of which

no one’s

nobody’s

of none

that one’s

of that

of those

(not specified)

(substantival or pronominal)

something

(anything)

everything

all things

all

what (thing)

which

nothing

not anything

that (thing)

(adverbial)

some quantity

somewhat

rather, some

a little, at all

(any)

every quantity

all, the whole

all of it

what quantity

how much

how many

no quantity

none

none at all

that quantity

so much/many

as much/many

Person or thing

(pronominal or adjectival)

some one

(anyone)

each one, each

everybody

=all,

all the ...

which one

who, he who

which, that

no one

nobody

that one

the former

9. The vowel A is sounded like "ah!" or the a in "father"; I like ee in "seen"; U like oo in "fool."

As regards the vowels E and O, we have no words in English exactly expressing their true sounds. The correct sound of E is something midway between the vowels heard in "bale" and "bell," and that of O something midway between those heard in "dole" and "doll," viz., "eh!" (cut short) and "oh!" (cut short), but without the prolonged sound heard in these words. In the vowel E there should be no trace of the ee sound heard in "cake"; its true sound is much nearer to the e in "bell." The vowel O approaches to the sound of o in "for," or of aw in "law."

In the scheme of pronunciation (par. 19) we have therefore used ah for A; eh for E; ee for I; o for O; oo for U.

N.B.—Do not clip or drag the vowels.

(Gramatikaj Finiĝoj).

A

 final denotes 

an Adjective.

,

.

E

 final denotes 

an Adverb.

,

.

I

 final denotes 

the Infinitive Mood.

,

.

O

 final denotes 

a Noun.

,

.

U

 final denotes 

the Imperative Mood.

,

.

,

.

,

.

J

 final denotes 

the Plural.

,

.

N

 final denotes 

the Accusative Case.

.

,

.

AS

 final denotes 

the Present Tense.

,

, or,

.

IS

 final denotes 

the Past Tense.

,

, or,

.

OS

 final denotes 

the Future Tense.

,

.

US

 final denotes 

the Conditional Mood.

,

, or

,

.

ANTA

 final denotes 

Present Participle Active.

,

.

INTA

 final denotes 

Past Participle Active.

,

.

ONTA

 final denotes 

Future Participle Active.

,

.

ATA

 final denotes 

Present Participle Passive.

,

.

ITA

 final denotes 

Past Participle Passive.

,

.

OTA

 final denotes 

Future Participle Passive.

,

.

N.B.—There are three forms of participles, the adjectival, substantival, and adverbial. The one given above is the adjectival. In the adverbial form the final A is changed into E. Farante tion, li ... = By (in, or through) doing that, he ... To form the substantive, change A into O. La faranto = The doer (the person doing). These three forms are applicable to all the three participles in both the active and passive voices (see pars. 208–210).

55. LIST OF PREFIXES (Prefiksoj).

• BO- Denotes any relationship resulting from marriage (par. 286):

  patro, a father, bo-patro, a father-in-law.

  filino, a daughter, bo-filino, a daughter-in-law.

• DIS- Denotes division, dissemination, separation, etc., (dis-e, separately), (par. 287):

  ĵeti, to throw, dis-ĵeti, to throw about, to scatter.

  ŝiri, to tear, dis-ŝiri, to tear in pieces.

• EK- Denotes the beginning of an action, or its short duration (par. 288):

  kanti, to sing, ek-kanti, to begin to sing.

  brili, to shine, ek-brili, to flash.

• EKS- Denotes late, formerly, like the English ex-.

  kolonelo, colonel, eks-kolonelo, ex-colonel.

  edziĝo, a wedding, eks-edziĝo, a divorce.

• GE- Denotes persons of both sexes taken together (par. 286):

  patro, a father, ge-patroj, parents, or father and mother.

  mastro, a master, ge-mastroj, master and mistress.

• MAL- Denotes the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, on the contrary), (par. 289):

  forta, strong, mal-forta, weak.

  estimi, to esteem, mal-estimi, to despise.

• MIS- Denotes mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.

• RE- Denotes, as in English, repetition, again, back (re-e, again), (par. 290):

  iri, to go, re-iri, to go again.

  diri, to say, re-diri, to repeat.

55 (a). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.

On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are frequently used as prefixes. A good many other particles also are used in the same way, e.g.:—

• ĈEF par. 272 (g)
• DUON par. 286
• FI par. 270
• FOR par. 287
• FUŜ par. 270
• MEM par. 291
• SIN par. 291
• PRA par. 286
• VIC par. 292

19. It is advisable that the student, before proceeding to the grammar, should get a thorough knowledge of the sounds of letters, syllables, and words; he should, therefore, read over the following list of words, which gives most of the combinations of sounds in the language. The italics denote where the tonic accent falls.

SCHEME OF PRONUNCIATION.

Esperanto

Letter.

A = 

is used to represent the

in

.

E = 

(see par.

).

I = 

is used to represent the

in

.

O = 

(see par.

).

U = 

is used to represent the

in

.

Ŭ = 

is used to represent the

in

.

G = 

is used to represent the

in

.

Ĝ = 

is used to represent the

in

.

Ĥ = 

is used to represent a very strong guttural aspirate

J = 

is used to represent the

in

.

Ĵ = 

is used to represent the

in

.

Esperanto.

Pronunciation.

English.

abato

ah-

-to

abbot.

la afero

lah ah-

-ro

the affair.

aero

ah-

-ro

air.

trairi

trah-

-ree

to traverse.

balai

bah-

-ee

to sweep.

ajlo

-lo (sound "y" short,

  as ye) (dissyllable)

garlic.

krajono

krah-

-no

pencil.

majesta

mah-

-tah

majestic.

ajn

(sound "y" short,

  as ye) (monosyllable)

ever.

palaj

-lahy (sound "y" short,

  as ye) (dissyllable)

pale (adj., pl.)

la ondo

lah

-do

the wave.

la ungo

lah

-go

the nail.

laŭdo

-do

praise.

antaŭ

-tahw

before.

hodiaŭ

ho-

-ahw

to-day.

Biblio

Bee-

-o

Bible.

cent

tsehnt

hundred.

citi

-tee

to cite, quote.

colo

-lo

inch.

paco

-tso

peace.

pacienco

pah-tsee-

-tso

patience.

oficiro

o-fee-

-ro

officer.

proceso

pro-

-so

lawsuit.

ĉar

chahr

because, for.

ĉielo

chee-

-lo

heaven, sky.

senĉesa

sehn-

-sah

incessant, ceaseless.

eĉ

ehch

even.

elemento

eh-leh-

-to

element.

oceano

o-tseh-

-no

ocean.

treege

treh-

-geh

exceedingly.

feino

feh-

-no

fairy.

perei

peh-

-ee

to perish.

plej

(sound "y" short,

  as ye) (monosyllable)

most.

malplej

-plehy (sound "y" short,

  as ye) (dissyllable)

least.

hejmo

-mo (sound "y" short,

  as ye) (dissyllable)

home.

neo

-o

negative.

teorio

teh-o-

-o

theory.

pereu

peh-

-oo

perish (imperative).

Eŭropo

ehw-

-po

Europe.

gento

-to

tribe.

gvidi

-dee

to guide.

lingvo

-gvo

language.

guano

goo-

-no

guano.

ĝui

-ee

to enjoy.

ĝojo

-yo

joy.

paĝo

-djo

page.

haro

-ro

hair.

senhara

sehn-

-rah

bald.

ĥemio

hHeh-

-o (guttural aspirate)

chemistry.

eĥo

-hHo (do.)

echo.

idilio

ee-dee-

-o

idyll.

ial

-ahl

for any cause.

tiel

-ehl

thus.

diigi

dee-

-gee

to deify.

tiom

-om

as much.

ĉiu

-oo

each.

tiuj

(dissyllable)

those.

justa

-tah

just.

ĉiujara

chee-oo-

-rah

yearly.

ĵus

zhoos

just (adv.).

ĵaŭdo

-do

Thursday.

bovaĵo

bo-

-zho

beef.

konkuri

kon-

-ree

to compete.

knedi

-dee

to knead.

kvankam

-kahm

although.

kvitanco

kvee-

-tso

receipt.

malkvieteco

mahl-kvee-eh-

-tso

restlessness.

ekzemplo

ehk-

-plo

example.

mallumiĝo

mahl-loo-

-djo

eclipse.

ellabori

ehl-lah-

-ree

to achieve.

ondo

-do

a wave.

boato

bo-

-to

boat.

troe

-eh

excessively.

foiro

fo-

-ro

a fair.

vojoj

-yoy

roads (plur.).

zoologio

zo-o-lo-

-o

zoology.

trouzi

tro-

-zee

to abuse.

rimarki

ree-

-kee

to remark.

forrampi

for-

-pee

to creep away

sekci

-tsee

to dissect.

sceno

-no (imagine

  a very short

to

  help to give the

  sound of the first

)

scene.

sceptro

-tro

sceptre.

scienco

(e)stsee-

-tso

science.

scii

-ee

to know.

sciuro

(e)stsee-

-ro

squirrel.

konscienco

kons-tsee-

-tso

conscience.

nescio

nehs-

-o

ignorance.

sfero

-ro

sphere.

sveni

-nee

to swoon.

sklavo

-vo

slave.

skvamo

-mo

scale (of fish).

ŝaŭmo

-mo

froth.

malŝarĝi

mahl-

-djee

to unload (a cart).

ŝlosi

-see

to lock.

ŝmiri

-ree

to smear.

ŝpruci

-tsee

to spurt (intrans.).

ŝtrumpo

-po

stocking.

ŝveli

-lee

to swell (intrans.).

poŝtmarko

posht-

-ko

postage stamp

trajto

-to (dissyllable)

trait, feature.

unu

-noo

one.

unua

oo-

-ah

first.

duelo

doo-

-lo

duel.

kuirejo

koo-ee-

-yo

kitchen.

detrui

deh-

-ee

to destroy.

monujo

mo-

-yo

purse.

tuj

(monosyllable)

immediately.

prujno

-no (dissyllable)

white frost.

unuj

-nooy (dissyllable)

some (plural of

).

duobla

doo-

-blah

double.

paruo

pah-

-o

tomtit.

detruu

deh-

-oo

destroy (imperative).

envolvi

ehn-

-vee

to envelop, wrap.

edzino

ehd-

-no

wife.

noktomezo

nok-to-

-zo

midnight.

Note.—Esperanto vowels are very similar in sound to those in German and Spanish, and in the Italian do, re, mi, fa.

37. A word consists of one or more syllables or distinct sounds, and has a definite meaning.

54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 in number) should be carefully studied, since innumerable words of the finest shade of meaning can be formed by their aid, in fact, they are the ground-work of the language. In cases where a suffix can be used as a root, the word it helps to form is given. The hyphens are used only to show the root, suffix, and grammatical termination of the examples. The student should form other words himself, and study the works of the best authors. (For remarks on suffixes and prefixes, see pars. 270–290.)

• -AĈ- Denotes badness of quality or condition (aĉ-a, vile, bad), (par. 271):

  dom-o, a house, dom-aĉ-o, a tumble-down house.

  ĉeval-o, a horse, ĉeval-aĉ-o, a sorry nag.

• -AD- Denotes the continuation of an action (par. 270):

  paf-o, a shot, or discharge, paf-ad-o, a firing, fusillade.

  ir-i, to go, ir-ad-i, to continue going.

• -AĴ- Denotes some real or concrete thing made from, or having the quality of, the root (aĵ-o, a thing), (par. 271):

  mola, soft, mol-aĵ-o, a soft thing, or substance.

  frukt-o, fruit, frukt-aĵ-o, jam.

• -AN- Denotes a member, inhabitant, or partisan (an-o, a member, etc.), (par. 272):

  vilaĝ-o, a village, vilaĝ-an-o, a villager.

  London-o, London, London-an-o, a Londoner.

• -AR- Denotes a collection of the idea implied in the root (ar-o, a collection, flock), (par. 273):

  arb-o, a tree, arb-ar-o, a wood.

  hom-o, a man, hom-ar-o, mankind.

• -ĈJ- These letters, substituted for one or more of the letters of a masculine name, make it an affectionate diminutive (par. 274):

  Petr-o, Peter, Pe-ĉj-o, Pete.

  Vilhelm-o, William, Vilhel-ĉj-o, Willie, Vilhe-ĉj-o, Will, Vil-ĉj-o, Billy, Vi-ĉj-o, Bill.

  For feminine names insert nj instead of ĉj (par. 274):

  Mari-o, Mary, Ma-nj-o, Polly.

  Helen-o, Helen, Hele-nj-o, Nelly, He-nj-o, Nell.

• -EBL- Denotes possibility, similar to the English terminations -able, -ible (ebl-a, possible, ebl-e, perhaps), (par. 275):

  leg-i, to read, leg-ebl-a, legible.

  tra-vid-i, to see through, tra-vid-ebl-a, transparent.

• -EC- Denotes an abstract quality of the idea conveyed in the root, like the English terminations -ness, -tude, -ity (ec-o, a distinctive mark, or quality), (par. 271):

  bon-a, good, bon-ec-o, goodness.

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ec-o, wealth.

• -EDZ- Denotes a married person (edz-o, a husband), (par. 276):

  doktor-o, a doctor, doktor-edz-in-o, a doctor’s wife, lav-ist-in-o, a washerwoman, lav-ist-in-edz-o, a washerwoman’s husband.

• -EG- Denotes augmentation, intensity of degree (eg-a, intense, eg-ec-o, intensity), (par. 277):

  grand-a, great, grand-eg-a, enormous.

  pord-o, a door, pord-eg-o, a portal, outer-door.

• -EJ- Denotes the place specially used for, or allotted to, the idea implied in the root (ej-o, place, location), (par. 278):

  preĝ-i, to pray, preĝ-ej-o, a church.

  tomb-o, a grave, tomb, tomb-ej-o, a graveyard, cemetery.

• -EM- Denotes propensity, inclination, disposition (em-o, a disposition, bias, tendency), (par. 275):

  babil-i, to chatter, babil-em-a, chattering.

  pac-o, peace, pac-em-a, inclined to peace, peaceful.

• -ER- Denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment (er-o, an item), (par. 273):

  sabl-o, sand, sabl-er-o, a grain of sand.

  mon-o, money, mon-er-o, a coin.

• -ESTR- Denotes a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, a chief), (par. 272):

  ŝip-o, a ship, ŝip-estr-o, a captain of a ship.

  imperi-o, an empire, imperi-estr-o, an emperor.

• -ET- Denotes diminution of degree (et-a, little, small), (par. 277):

  mont-o, a mountain, mont-et-o, a hill.

  rid-i, to laugh, rid-et-i, to smile.

• -ID- Denotes the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o, offspring), (par. 279):

  ŝaf-o, a sheep, ŝaf-id-o, a lamb.

  Izrael-o, Israel, Izrael-id-o, an Israelite.

• -IG- Denotes the causing, making, or rendering anything to be in the state implied by the root (ig-i, to cause, to make), (par. 280):

  mort-i, to die, mort-ig-i, to kill.

  pur-a, clean, pur-ig-i, to clean, purify.

• -IĜ- Denotes the action of becoming, turning to, and has sometimes a reflexive force (iĝ-i, to become, to be made), (par. 280):

  ruĝ-a, red, ruĝ-iĝ-i, to become red, to blush.

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ig-i, to become, or grow rich, or to get rich.

• -IL- Denotes the tool or instrument or means by which something is done (il-o, a tool, means), (par. 281):

  tranĉ-i, to cut, tranĉ-il-o, a knife.

  pres-i, to print, pres-il-o, a printing press.

• -IN- Denotes the feminine gender (in-o, a female), (par. 282):

  frat-o, a brother, frat-in-o, a sister.

  leon-o, a lion, leon-in-o, a lioness.

• -IND- Denotes worthiness, deserving of something, worthy of (ind-o, worth, merit), (par. 275):

  laŭd-i, to praise, laŭd-ind-a, praiseworthy.

  estim-o, esteem, estim-ind-a, estimable, worthy of esteem.

• -ING- Denotes a thing used for holding only one object (ing-o, a socket, or sheath), (par. 278):

  plum-o, a pen, plum-ing-o, a penholder.

  kandel-o, a candle, kandel-ing-o, a candlestick.

• -ISM- Denotes a theory, system, doctrine, school of thought (ism-o, an "ism"), (par. 293):

  real-a, real, real-ism-o, realism.

  protestant-o, a protestant, protestant-ism-o, protestantism.

• -IST- Denotes a person occupied with the idea contained in the root (par. 272):

  drog-o, a drug, drog-ist-o, a druggist.

  ŝtel-i, to steal, ŝtel-ist-o, a thief.

• -NJ- See ĈJ, page 29, and par. 274.

• -OBL- Denotes a numeral multiple (par. 284):

  du, two, du-obl-a, double.

  tri, three, tri-obl-a, triple.

• -ON- Denotes a numeral fraction (par. 284):

  kvar, four, kvar-on-o, a fourth.

  kvin, five, kvin-on-o, a fifth.

• -OP- Denotes a numeral collective (op-a, collective), (par. 284):

  du, two, du-op-e, by twos.

  dek, ten, dek-op-e, by tens, ten together.

• -UJ- Denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears, a quantity or more than one article (uj-o, a receptacle), (par. 278):

  ink-o, ink, ink-uj-o, an inkpot.

  plum-o, a pen, plum-uj-o, a pen box (not a penholder).

  turk-o, a Turk, Turk-uj-o, Turkey.

• -UL- Denotes a person or being characterized by the idea implied in the root (par. 272):

  riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ul-o, a rich man.

  avar-a, avaricious, avar-ul-o, a miser.

• -UM- Has no defined meaning. The meaning of a word with um is suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. It is rarely used (par. 285):

  kol-o, a neck, kol-um-o, a collar.

  plen-a, full, plen-um-i, to fulfil.

  man-o, a hand, man-um-o, a cuff.

162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.

Note.—Esperanto vowels are very similar in sound to those in German and Spanish, and in the Italian do, re, mi, fa.

10. Combinations, Vowel and Consonant.—The following 6 combinations resemble diphthongs, but are not so, since a diphthong consists of 2 vowels and j and ŭ are both consonants:—

AJ pronounced

or

something like

in aisle.

AŬ pronounced

or

something like

in cow.

EJ pronounced

or

something like

in c

nne.

EŬ pronounced

or

something like

in w

ard.

OJ pronounced

or

something like

in joy.

UJ pronounced

or

something like

in Hallel

ah.

It will be observed that if these double sounds be rapidly made the pronunciation will resemble the English words given, but remember they are each pronounced as one syllable, so the examples "cayenne," "wayward," "Hallelujah," are not strictly correct. AJ, EJ, OJ, UJ, resemble the sound heard in the French words "paille," "oseille," "boyard," "fouille," and AŬ is heard in the German word "Haus."

N.B.—It is difficult to explain the exact sound of EŬ. Pronounce our word "ewe," and then give the sound of eh (cut short) to the first letter, thus ehwe, pronouncing the word as one syllable. In the scheme of pronunciation at page 10 we have given it as ehw. It occurs very rarely.

67 (2). To show motion towards something.

(a). Accusative of direction.—To show direction towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made the accusative is used, and this is generally called "the accusative of direction." It will be observed, however, that we can also use a preposition to show the motion, and, if such preposition in itself shows movement, its complement must be in the nominative, since all prepositions govern that case; but if the preposition does not in itself denote movement, then its complement must be in the accusative.

Examples.—Mi iras Romon (aŭ, al Romo) = I am going to Rome. Li kuris en la ĝardenon = He ran into the garden. The preposition en does not show movement, therefore ĝardenon is in the accusative, but Li kuris en la ĝardeno = He ran in the garden. This means he was already in the garden, and was running in it. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = On the Danish throne I have rights.

(b). Adverbs also take the accusative of direction.

Examples.—Kien vi iras? Mi iras nenien hodiaŭ = Where (whither) are you going? I am going nowhere to-day. Ĝi falis teren (or, sur la teron) = It fell to the ground (or, on to the ground; lit., earthwards). Li iris hejmen kaj restis hejme = He went home and remained at home.

[9] It must be remembered that all roots or root-words in Esperanto are either sexless, or have only the sex naturally belonging to the root, unless the feminine suffix—IN—be added. For instance, vir- gives the idea of "man" (male), therefore viro = a man; and we always speak of viro as li = he, because we are sure the noun refers to the male sex. But the root infan- gives only the idea of a "child" (neuter), so, unless we actually know the child is a male, we speak of infano = child as ĝi = it, just as we do in English. When a suffix denoting a person, such as -estr-, -ist-, -ul-, is added to a root, the noun is sexless, or may be presumed to be masculine, unless the feminine -in- be also added.

164. Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:—

(a). Verbs which relate to the weather.

Examples.—Pluvas = It rains. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis = It lightened. Neĝus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed.

(b). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.

Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Ŝajnos = It will seem. Prosperis al mi trovi = It was my fortune to find.

(c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb.

Examples.—Estas pli bone forkuri = It is better to run away. Estas dirite, ke ... = It is said that ...

(d). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245).

Examples.—Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.

291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.

SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English -self. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide; sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola = voluntary.

271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).

(a). -AĴ- denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.

Examples.—Ĉasi = to hunt, ĉasaĵo = game. Armi = to arm, armaĵo = armour. Bovo = an ox, bovaĵo = beef. Ovo = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.

(b). -EC- denotes an abstract quality, similar to the English suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity.

Examples.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanness. Feliĉa = happy, feliĉeco = happiness, felicity. Sen = without, seneco = dearth, want. Kuraĝa = courageous, kuraĝeco = fortitude. Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Riĉa = rich, riĉeco = wealth.

(c). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as aĵo = a thing, eco = a quality, a distinctive mark.

(d). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning.

Amiko = a friend, amikaĵo = a friendly act, amikeco = friendship. Bona = good, bonaĵo = a good (action or thing), boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikaĵo = a stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molaĵo = a soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty, spritaĵo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita = dull, stupid, malspritaĵo = a stupidity, a bêtise, malspriteco = stupidity, a state of silliness.

(e). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (-AĴ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = the good, good (itself), and from this arises bonaĵo = a good action, or, something good, the abstract quality being boneco = goodness. Again, acido = an acid, acidaĵo = an acid thing, something which has an acid taste, acideco = acidity. So, heroo = a hero, heroaĵo = an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the "nessness" of the idea.

Examples.—La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam ambaŭ posedas acidecon = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. La heroo de la heroaĵo montris grandan heroecon = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts.

280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)

(a). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = He tried to make his friend broach the subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Iĝi = to become (to be made, to get), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = The weather is getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = He will soon become an old man.

(b). Used as suffixes:—

(1). -IG- denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruĝa = red, ruĝigi = to make red, to redden, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = the action of reddening, ruĝiga = reddening (adj.).

(2). -IĜ- denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix and with -IG- in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = to become or get red, to blush; ruĝiĝo = the action of getting red, a blush; ruĝiĝa = blushing (adj.).

(c). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:—

(d). From adjectives.

Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good, boniĝi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve, pliboniĝi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of making better, improvement (made), pliboniĝo = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued, lacigi = to tire (active), laciĝi = to get tired, lacigo = the act of tiring others, laciĝo = the state of growing tired. Preta = ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretiĝi = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.

(e). From nouns.

Examples.—Fianĉo = a fiancé (man), fianĉigi = to betroth, to affiance, fianĉiĝi = to become betrothed, to be engaged, fianĉiĝo = betrothal, engagement, fianĉiĝa = betrothing, fianĉiĝe = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:—fianĉino, fianĉinigi, fianĉiniĝi, fianĉinigo, etc., etc.

(f). From verbs.

Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill, mortiĝi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing (murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige = mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide. Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidiĝi = to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit, seating, sidiĝo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homon pri la novaĵo, or, Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo = I caused the man to know (or, I informed the man, or, I made the news known to the man). Sciiĝi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo = I learnt the news.

(g). Verbs formed by -IGI are transitive (par. 161), but those by -IĜI are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in -IĜI, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc., as:—Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol mi lin konis = He had become an old man before I knew him.

(h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, such as ĉesi = to cease, daŭri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or intransitive.

Examples.—La pluvo ĉesas fali (or, ĉesiĝas) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon = The shooting continued some time. La tempo pasas = Time passes.

In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix -IGI.

Examples.—Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo! = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! Daŭrigu vian rakonton = Continue your narrative. Pasigu al mi la karafon = Pass me the decanter (see par. 237 (i)).

(i). Transitive verbs.—On the contrary, fini = to finish, and komenci = to commence, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -IG to make them transitive.

Examples.—Finu vian laboron = Finish your work. Ni komencis nian vojaĝon je la dua horo = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock.

But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -IĜI.

Examples.—Lia laboro finiĝas = His work finishes. La jaro finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo = The journey commenced at 3 o’clock (see par. 237 (i)).

(j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Joined to these, -IG- and -IĜ- serve to form numerous words.

Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuiĝi = to unite together, to be combined, unuiĝo = union (undergone). Duobligi = to double, duobliĝi = to become double. Aligi al = to attribute to, aliĝi = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, aliĝo = adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksiĝi = to become ex-, to resign (a position). Disigi = to separate, disiĝi = to separate mutually, disigo = act of separating, disjunction, disiĝo = disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kuniĝi = to join together, to coalesce, kunigo = connection, kuniĝo = junction. Forigi = to do away with, foriĝi = to withdraw.

254. Prepositions as prefixes.—Prepositions are frequently used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.

Examples.—Mi eliris el la korto = I went out of the courtyard. Li eniris en la ĉambron = He entered (into) the room. La birdo deflugis de la arbo = The bird flew from the tree. Li eliris el la domo = He went out of the house. Or we could say, Li iris el la domo, omitting the joined preposition.

275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)

(a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo = worth, merit, value. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to believe, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = credible, possible of belief, believable; kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda = worthy of belief.

(b). -EBL- denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.

Examples.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend, fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable. Fidi = to rely upon, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of course, comprehensibly.

(c). Do not confuse -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = readable, legible, but leginda = readable, worth reading. Hence we see that -EBL- must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = lovable, and honorinda = honourable. -EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive.

Examples.—Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla = It is difficult to imagine such love.

(d). -EM- denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.

Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help, helpema = helpful, obliging. Trompi = to deceive, trompema = deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema = obliging, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work, laborema = laborious. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly, purigebla = cleanable. Babili = to chatter, babilema = talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema = irascible, ekkolerema = quick-tempered. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.

(e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in compound words). For instance:—

Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed, hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness, hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep.

(f). -IND- denotes worthiness, worthy of.

Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laŭdi = to praise, laŭdinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember, memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable.

279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)

-ID- denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity.

Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence bovido = a calf; if we wished to say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, viz., bovino = a cow, bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call bovidino, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be virbovido, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido = a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalido = a foal. Koko = a cock, kokido = a chicken, kokideto = a chick, a tiny chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a fledgeling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of Napoleon. Reĝo = a king, reĝido = a prince, king’s son.

286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.)

These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree.

(a). BO- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -in-law, as patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law.

(b). DUON- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = half-pay, duonjara = half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother.

(c). GE- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.

Examples.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj = master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s).

(d). PRA- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = primeval.

Examples.—Pratempo = primitive time. Praarbarego = primeval forest. Prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. Praonklo = grand, or great, uncle. Praavino = great-grandmother.

(e). The following are examples of these four prefixes:—

Patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro = stepfather, gepatroj = father and mother, parents.

Patrino = mother, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino = stepmother.

Avo = grandfather, boavo = grandfather-in-law, duonavo = stepgrandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj = great-grandparents.

Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = stepson.

Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino = stepdaughter.

Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.

Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter.

Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = step, or half, brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s), bogefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.

Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister in law, duonfratino = step, or half, sister.

Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand, or great, uncle, geonkloj = uncle(s) and aunt(s).

Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand, or great, aunt.

Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and niece(s).

Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece.

Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild.

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

Indefinite.

,

or

.

and

.

Negative.

Demonstrative.

Kind of

(adjectival)

some (any) kind or sort of

some (any)

of some kind

every kind of

every

of every kind

what kind of?

of what kind?

what a!

... as

no kind of

no, no such

of no kind

(not any kind of)

that kind of

such a

of that kind

Reason for

(adverbial)

for some (any) reason or cause

for every reason/cause

for all reasons

for what reason/cause

why? wherefore

for no reason/cause

for that reason/cause

therefore

(adverbial)

at some (any) time

ever

once

always

every time

for all time

ever

at what time?

when

at no time

never

at that time

then

(adverbial)

in some (any) place

somewhere

(anywhere)

in every place

everywhere

in what place

where

in no place

nowhere

(not anywhere)

in that place

there

yonder

(adverbial)

in some manner/way

somehow (anyhow)

(in any manner)

(in) every manner/way

(in) every way

all ways

in what manner/way

how?

... as

like

in no manner/way

nohow

by no means

not at all

in that manner/way

thus, so, like (that)

as ...

in such a manner

(pronominal)

somebody’s

(someone’s)

(anyone’s)

everybody’s

everyone’s

each one’s

of each, of all

whose

of which

no one’s

nobody’s

of none

that one’s

of that

of those

(not specified)

(substantival or pronominal)

something

(anything)

everything

all things

all

what (thing)

which

nothing

not anything

that (thing)

(adverbial)

some quantity

somewhat

rather, some

a little, at all

(any)

every quantity

all, the whole

all of it

what quantity

how much

how many

no quantity

none

none at all

that quantity

so much/many

as much/many

Person or thing

(pronominal or adjectival)

some one

(anyone)

each one, each

everybody

=all,

all the ...

which one

who, he who

which, that

no one

nobody

that one

the former

278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)

These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained.

(a). -EJ- denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a locality.

Examples.—Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafejo = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. Preĝi = to pray, preĝejo = a church, a place allotted to prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit-tree, fruktarbejo = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo = a café. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a weapon, armilejo = an armoury. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo = a cemetery. Manĝi = to eat, manĝejo = a refectory, manĝaĵo = food, manĝaĵejo = a larder. Planti = to plant, plantejo = nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino = a cow, bovinejo = cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school. Juĝi = to judge, juĝejo = a court of justice. Dormi = to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper manufactory.

(b) -ING- denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = a socket, a sheath, a holder.

Examples.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick. Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger, fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard, sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard (bayonet).

(c). -UJ- denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = a receptacle, a container. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:—

(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races.

Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo = England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo = Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain.

N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if desired.

Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (a).

(2). The names of trees producing fruits.

Examples.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum-tree. Kaŝtano = a chestnut, kaŝtanujo = a chestnut-tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo = a pear-tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond-tree. Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry-tree. Ĉerizo = a cherry, ĉerizujo = a cherry-tree.

Arbo can be used instead of ujo in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: prunarbo, ĉerizarbo.

(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.

Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore tekruĉo = a teapot, from kruĉo = a vessel for fluids). Mono = money, monujo = a purse. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio. Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar-basin. Karto = a card, kartujo = a card-case. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a, beehive. Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = mustard-pot.

(d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:—

For instance, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add tenejo = a storehouse, as:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a shop, we add vendejo = a market, or place where things are sold, as:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we might say also cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple-tree.

285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)

-UM- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words.

The following embrace nearly all:—

• *Aerumi = to air, aerate. Aero = air.
• *Amindumi = to court, woo. Amo = love.
• Brulumo = a swelling, inflammation. Bruli = to burn.
• *Buŝumo = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. Buŝumi = to muzzle, to gag. Buŝo = mouth.
• *Butonumi = to button. Butonumilo = a buttonhook. Butono = a button.
• Cerbumi = to rack one’s brains. Cerbo = a brain.
• *Gustumi = to taste (something). Gustumado = tasting, the sense of tasting. Gusto = taste.
• Kalkanumo = a heel of a boot, etc. Kalkano = heel (of the foot).
• *Kolumo = a shirt collar. Kolo = neck.
• Kolombumi = to spoon, bill and coo. Kolombo = a dove.
• *Komunumo = a commune, a community. Komuna = common.
• *Krucumi = to crucify. Kruco = a cross.
• *Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. Lakto = milk.
• Lekumi = to lap. Leki = lick.
• *Lotumi = to allot. Loti = to draw lots.
• *Malvarmumo = a cold, chill. Malvarmumi = to catch cold. Malvarma = cold.
• *Manumo = a cuff, a wristband. Mano = hand.
• *Mastrumi = to manage (the household), keep house. Mastrumado = household management. Mastro = master.
• *Nazumo = a pince-nez. Nazo = nose.
• Okulumi = to make eyes at. Okulo = an eye.
• *Palpebrumi = to wink, blink. Palpebro = an eyelid.
• Partumo = a fraction (mathematics). Parto = a part, a share.
• *Plenumi = to fulfil, accomplish. Plenumiĝi = to be accomplished, fulfilled. Plena = full, complete.
• Proksimuma, proksimume = approximately. Proksima near.
• Sapumi = to soap, lather. Sapo = soap.
• *Ventumi = to ventilate, to use a fan. Ventumilo = a fan. Vento = wind.

N.B.—The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof’s "Fundamento de Esperanto."

287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)

These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position.

(a). DE- as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another.

(b). DIS- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.

(c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix it denotes distance from something.

(d). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., disperse = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.

(e) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:—

= to tear,

= to tear from, to pluck.

= to tear to pieces, to lacerate.

= to tear away from.

= to go,

= to go from (a place).

= to go in different directions, to separate.

= to go away, to depart.

=to throw,

= to throw down, to overthrow.

= to throw about, to demolish, scatter.

= to throw away, to discard.

= to put,

= to put down, take off, doff.

= to disperse, to distribute.

= to put away, to omit.

= to carry,

= to carry from, to deport.

= to carry here and there.

= to carry away.

289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)

(a). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used.

(b). MAL- is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary, and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before MAL- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = a coward has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man has no such meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good."

(c). NE is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:—Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full. Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same signification as estas necerte = it is uncertain. Used as a root, it forms nei = to deny, nea = negative, etc.

(d). SEN is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it has the same signification; as ĉesi = to cease, senĉesa = without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense, sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to decapitate. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of, seneco = want, etc.

(e). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that MAL- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = not, or the privative sen = without. For instance, plena = complete, full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. Now the opposite to "complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = empty, void, vacuous. Again, from riĉa = rich, we form the opposite, malriĉa = poor, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa = not rich, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means "without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = shut, closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = not closed.

(f) In using MAL- we must consider the strength of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like "destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore malriĉega = destitute. So bela = beautiful, belega = splendid, magnificent; therefore their opposites are malbela = ugly, malbelega = hideous.

(g). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use MAL- if we wish to give a stronger idea than NE or SEN would infer; (2), to use NE in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use SEN if "without" is more applicable than "not," as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla = not movable, immovable. It will generally be right to employ SEN to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka = thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald, senutila = useless. The opposite to "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = detrimental, prejudicial.

(h). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:—

Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible, nevidebla = invisible. Ŝanĝebla = changeable (in the sense "able to be changed"), neŝanĝebla = unchangeable. Ofta = frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = scarce, rare. Simple = simple, malsimpla = intricate, complex. Permesi = to permit, malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to help, malhelpi = to hinder, nehelpi = to give no assistance. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco = intemperance, drunkenness. Saĝeco = wisdom, malsaĝeco = foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = officious, malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura = clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious, malpia = impious. Agrabla = agreeable, neagrabla = unpleasant, malagrabla = disagreeable, nasty. Glata = smooth, malglata = rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto = respect, nerespekto = non-respect, malrespekto = violation. Brua = noisy, senbrua = noiseless.

64. To give force to affirmative or negative replies one can add to ne or jes any suitable adverb, as certe = certainly, ja = indeed, kompreneble = of course, etc., etc., or repeat the verb of the interrogation without its complement, in the same way as in English we often repeat the auxiliary of the verb.

Examples.—Ĉu vi faris tion? = Did you do that? Jes! Jes! Mi faris, or Ne! Ne! Mi ne faris = Yes, yes, I did, or No, no! I did not. Ĉu vi finis vian laboron? = Have you finished your work? Jes! mi finis, or Ne, mi ne (finis) = Yes, I have, or, No, I have not. Ĉu vi mortigis tiun birdon? = Did you kill that bird? Jes! Certe mi mortigis, or, Certe jes! or, Ne, kompreneble, mi ne mortigis, or, Kompreneble ne! = Yes! Certainly I did, or, No! Of course, I didn’t! Ĉu vi deziras kafon? = Do you want coffee? Jes, mi deziras, or Ne, mi ne deziras; mi jam havas = Yes, I do, or, No, I do not; I have (some) already.

64 (a). When the verb is omitted in the reply, the case must be used which would have been used had the verb been expressed.

Examples.—Kiom kostis la ĉapelo? Naŭ ŝilingojn (aŭ, ĝi kostis naŭ ŝilingojn) = What did the hat cost? Nine shillings (or, it cost nine shillings). Kien vi iras? En la ĝardenon (aŭ, mi iras en la ĝardenon) = Where (whither) are you going? Into the garden (or, I am going into the garden). Kiom pezas la kesto? Dek naŭ funtojn = What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds; but, Kiom estas la pezo de la kesto? Dek naŭ funtoj = what is the weight of the chest? Nineteen pounds.

208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting -O for -A for a noun, and -E for -A for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative.

200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)).

Examples.—Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron = I ordered him to give me the book. Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon = I beg you to send me the dog. Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron = He did not require me to shut the window. Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato = I wish you to write to your brother. Estas necese, ke ni tien iru = It is necessary for us to go thither. Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). Mi bezonas, ke li venu = I want him to come (I have need that he come). Mi ne volis, ke li venu = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the letter"). Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, or, They wrote "do not come to-day").

290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)

(a). RE-, like the English prefix re-, means "back" or "again." It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = again, in return.

(b) (1). Repetition.

Examples.—Refari = to make afresh, to remake; rediri = to say again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, more frequently used for "repeat"); rekanti = to sing again; rejuniĝi = to grow young again; renaskiĝo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi = to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce.

(2). Return, etc.

Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take back; reĵeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili = to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return; reporti = to carry back, to carry to the original place.

N.B.—In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286–290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).

292. Prefix VIC-.

The prefix VIC- denotes the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral.

293. Suffix -ISM-.

The suffix -ISM- was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party.

Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.

It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (b).

[11] This distinction, however, is not observed by all writers.

142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J.

Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful.

288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.)

EK- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary.

Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to begin to sing, or to start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing. Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to learn, eklerni = to begin to learn. Iri = to go, ekiri = to start, to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst out crying. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep, ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive. Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to start (with fear, etc.).

EK- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to," frequently used in English before a verb, as:—Kiam mi ekpripensas = When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. Kiam mi ekpensas pri ĝi = When I come to think of it.

272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).

These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person’s country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix -IN- is added to denote females.

(a). Like the English -an, -man, -AN- denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.

Examples.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a member of a club. Senato = senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano = an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo = Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a townsman or citizen. Kamparo = country (rural), kamparano = a countryman. Vilaĝo = a village, vilaĝano = a villager. Insulo = an island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan.

(b). The suffix -AN- itself is used as a root. Ano = a member, anaro = a band (a collection of members of something).

(c). -IST-, like the English affix -ist, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes habitual occupation (not necessarily for the sake of gain).

Examples.—Juĝi = to judge, juĝisto = a judge. Kuraci = to treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto = a druggist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation). Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Ŝteli = to steal, ŝtelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = a painter (art). Kolorigi = to colour, paint, kolorigisto = a painter (house). Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = servant (male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or, astrologo) = an astrologer.

(d). -IST- is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = to sew, ŝuo = a shoe, boto = boot, we get kudristino = a seamstress or dressmaker, ŝuisto = a shoemaker, botisto = a bootmaker. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:—Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey, or valet.

(e). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.

Examples.—Juĝanto = a judge (of something), juĝisto, a judge (by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, one who is now photographing, fotografisto = a professional photographer. Laboranto = a person working, laboristo = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.

(f). -ESTR- denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix -AN- denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so -ESTR- would designate the head of it, as:—Urbo = a city, urbano = citizen, urbestro = a mayor, a chief citizen.

Examples.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor, imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a ruler, head of (the) State. Ŝipo = a ship, ŝipestro = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be instruisto). From polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the police force), policisto = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), policestro = chief of police.

(g). Ĉefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English chief, main, head-, prime.

Examples.—Episkopo = a bishop, ĉefepiskopo = archbishop. Anĝelo = an angel, ĉefanĝelo = archangel.

Compare -estro (the one in command over) with ĉef- (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = principal ship, ŝipestro = ship’s captain.

(h). -UL- denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.

Examples.—Riĉa = rich, riĉulo = a rich man. Malriĉa = poor, malriĉulo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela = beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca = peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a miser.

(i). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.

Examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man of there). Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a man of that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you).

(j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not -UL- but -IST- or a participial termination.

Examples.—Leganto = a reader (who is reading), leginto = a reader (who has read), legonto = a reader (who is about to read), legisto = a reader (by habitual occupation). But legemulo = a person who is fond of reading.

273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)

Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da eroj might be termed "a collection of items."

(a). -AR- denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.

Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = mankind. Arbo = a tree, arbaro = a wood, arbareto = a small wood, clump of trees. Arbeto = shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a grove. Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a (railway) carriage, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower, sekvantaro = suite, cortège, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro = list of names, a register. Ŝtupo = a step, ŝtuparo = a staircase, ŝtupetaro = a ladder, succession of small steps. Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = (the) aristocracy. Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle, brutaro = a herd of cattle. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafaro = a flock of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees.

(b). -ER- denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.

Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo = hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark. Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar.

276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)

-EDZ- denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root.

Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a married woman, edzeco = matrimony, a state of marriage, edziĝo = a wedding, nuptials, edziĝa = nuptial, geedzoj = a married couple, husband and wife.

When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.

Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a labourer’s wife; lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edziĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), edziniĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman.

281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)

-IL- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of.

Examples.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave, razilo = a razor. Tranĉi = to cut, tranĉilo = a knive. Haki = to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri = to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip, tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon. Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -EJ-, 278).

170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.

(INDICATIVE MOOD).

Present (Simple).

Singular.

Mi lavas min

=

Vi lavas vin

=

,

,

,

=

,

,

,

,

.

Plural.

Ni lavas nin

=

Vi lavas vin

=

,

Ili lavas sin

=

Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ili ne estas lavantaj sin

=

Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin?

=

(lit.,

)

Mi estas lavonta min

=

(or,

)

.

Past (Simple).

Ŝi ne lavis sin

=

Ĉu ni lavis nin?

=

Ĉu ili ne lavis sin?

=

Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin?

=

Ni estis lavintaj nin

=

Kiam li estis lavonta sin?

=

(or,

)

?

Future (Simple).

Ĉu ni lavos nin?

=

Li ne lavos sin

=

Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ŝi estos lavanta sin

=

Kiam li estos lavinta sin?

=

Mi estos lavonta min

=

(or,

)

.

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).

Se li lavus sin

=

Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...?

=

Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.

....

=

....

....

=

...?

....

=

....

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).

Singular.

Mi lavu min

=

Mi ne lavu min

=

Lavu vin

=

Ne lavu vin

=

Li lavu sin

=

Li ne lavu sin

=

Plural.

Ni lavu nin

=

Ni ne lavu nin

=

Lavu vin

=

Ne lavu vin

=

Ili lavu sin

=

Ili ne lavu sin

=

270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.