* The sections which I have added are as follows: 1866, 1873, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1890, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1909, 1913, 1922, 1927, 1935, 1964, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1990, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2068, 2086, 2088, 2097, 2111, 2122, 2152, 2155, 2255, 2264, 2267, 2271, 2273, 2275, 2276, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2292, 2345, 2357, 2400, 2406, 2407, 2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2412, 2413, 2414, 2740-2745.

1590. The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration: as,

1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called the Annalistic Present: as,

1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences.

2. The principal kinds of words or Parts of Speech are

Nouns,

1022. (2.) The following deponents in -īrī have the perfect participle in -sus (912):

15. There is no Article in Latin: thus, mēnsa may denote table, a table, or the table.

16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (DN. 2, 93).

179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called Haplology.

30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, āra, altar; mēnsis, month; ōrdō, series. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, pĕr, through; dŭx, leader; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the ee of been is pronounced long by some (bean), short by others (bin). Thus (2446) mihi, ibi were sometimes pyrrhics (⏖, 2522), sometimes iambi (⏑-, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed common and marked ⏓ or ⏒: as mihī̆, to me (2514).

31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (a) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (b) from variations in spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (d) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (e) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin.

32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose.

46. Comparing the vowels in English keen and kin, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The ee in keen is therefore said to be a narrow or close vowel, while the i in kin is wide or open. See 41.

33. The simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u (y), are either long or short. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short.

36. All vowels are long which are:

37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels:

42. Y, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German ü. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for i (in kin) and the lips rounded as for oo (in moon).

43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin i and e are called front vowels, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for i than for e. Latin o and u are called back vowels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for u than for o. Latin a holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed.

47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a Diphthong. All diphthongs are long.

50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions: ai pronounced as ai in aisle; ei as ei in eight; oi as oi in boil; and ou which sounded very much like the final o in no, go, which is really a diphthong (see 39).

48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (a.) primitive diphthongs: as in foedus, treaty; aurum, gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120.

49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are au, ae, oe, and the rare ui and eu.

51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture.

81. Consonants were not doubled in writing till after 200 B.C.: as, FVISE for fuisse, to have been, and for more than a century afterward the usage is variable: as, in the same inscription, ESSENT, they might be, by the side of SVPERASES, thou mayest have conquered; but it must not be inferred that they were pronounced as single consonants.

72. About 100 B.C. the combinations ch, ph, and th were introduced in Greek words to represent χ, φ, and θ; as Philippus, for the older PILIPVS. Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin words (19). ch is thought to have been pronounced like kh in blockhead, ph as in uphill, and th as in hothouse. But in practice ch is usually sounded as in the German machen or ich, ph as in graphic, and th as in pathos.

73. Explosives. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called explosives. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are: c, k, q, g; t, d; p, b. These are often called mutes.

82. Whenever two or more sounds are combined in a syllable, one of them excels in acoustic prominence: as, a in English pat; n in the group pnd in opnd (opened); l in the group tld in bottld (bottled); and s in the group pst. This sound is said to have syllabic function or to be syllabic; in the examples given, a, n, l, and s are respectively syllabic. All the other members of each group are termed unsyllabic.

83. Vowels are almost always used in syllabic function. When, in rare cases, they are unsyllabic, this fact is usually indicated in phonetic works by an inverted half-circle, ̭, placed under the vowel; so in the case of diphthongs to indicate the subordinate member: as ai̭, oḙ, ṷi (49). Latin omnia and English glorious, when pronounced as words of two syllables, would be written omni̭a (2503), glori̭ous. When sounds other than vowels have, in rare cases, syllabic function, this fact is noted in phonetic works by a point, . , or circle, ˳ , under the letter: as, Latin *agṛs, *agr̥s (111, b), English opṇd, opn̥d.

84. The relative force with which the different syllables of a word are uttered varies. Such variation in emphasis is called stress accentuation.

98. Change of ei. ei as a genuine diphthong is common in old inscriptions: as, SEI; SEIVE; ADEITVR; DEIXERVNT; FEIDA. In classical Latin it has passed into ī: thus, sī, if; sīve, either; adītur, is approached; dīxērunt, they said; fīda, faithful. An intermediate stage between the old diphthong ei and the classical ī was a very close (46) ē: as, PLOIRVME (465) for plūrimī; IOVRE (501, 507) for iūrī. For the orthographical use of ei as a spelling for the long ī-sound, see 29.

85. It is not customary to indicate the place of accents in Latin by special signs. When, for special reasons, signs are used, ´ denotes the chief accent, ` the secondary accent, while the unstressed syllables are left unmarked.

86. In classical Latin the place of the chief accent may be determined by the following rules.

88. In a few words which have lost a syllable the accent is retained on the last syllable; such are (1.) compounds of the imperatives dīc and dūc (113): as, ēdū́c; (2.) nominatives of proper names in -ās and -īs for -ātis and -ītis: as, Arpīnā́s, for Arpīnā́tis; Laenā́s; Maecēnā́s; Quirī́s; Samnī́s; also nostrā́s, vostrā́s; (3.) words compounded with the abbreviated (113) enclitics -c for -ce and -n for -ne: as, illī́c; tantṓn; audīstī́n (for the shortening of the final syllable: as, vidén, dost see?, see 129); (4.) audī́t, contracted from audīvit (154, 893). The Latin grammarians prescribe the circumflex (90) for all these long syllables.

89. In the preliterary period of the Latin language, the accent tended to go as far from the end of the word as possible (recessive accent). Thus, while the classical accentuation is inimī́cus, the older period accented ínimīcus. In literary Latin this early recessive accent has survived, only in Plautus’s accentuation of words of the form ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏓ (proceleusmatic or fourth paeon, see 2521), in which he stresses the first syllable: as, fácilius (classical facílius); vóluerat (classical volúerat). But in many instances the early recessive accent may be traced in literary Latin by the phonetic changes which it produced (102 ff.).

91. The force of the Latin stress accent must have varied at different periods and in different localities, as it now varies in the Romance countries. The early recessive accent seems to have been fairly emphatic; but the stress in classical Latin was probably weak and the difference between accented and unaccented syllables was much less marked than it is in English.

92. Proclitics are unaccented words which are pronounced as a part of the following word; they are: (1.) The relative and indefinite pronouns and their derivatives; (2.) Prepositions.

94. Two words expressing what is really one single idea are often bound together by one accent, one of them acting the part of either a proclitic or enclitic.

95. Of the six original diphthongs au, ou, eu, and ai, oi, ei, the only one which preserved its original sound in the classical period is au. Of the rest only ae (for older ai) and, in a few words, oe (for older oi) remained diphthongs; all the others had become monophthongs.

174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:

101. Change of eu. Primitive (48) eu appears in classical Latin only in the interjections eu, heu, ē̆heu, heus. Every other original eu had, even in old Latin, passed into ou and developed like the latter: as, *neumen (Greek νεῦμα) became first *noumen, then (100) nūmen. With the exceptions noted above, the diphthong eu, as it appears in Latin, is always of secondary origin (48), the result of the two vowels e and u meeting in composition: as, neu, neither, from nē-ve; neutiquam, from nē and utiquam (124).

108. Diphthongs, whether medial or final, are treated alike in atonic syllables.

102. The vowel of an unstressed (atonic) syllable is often weakened, changing its quantity or quality or both. This is especially the case in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent (posttonic syllables). The following changes took place at an early period when Latin still possessed the old, recessive accent (89).

107. (a.) In final syllables unaccented original e before s and t was weakened to i: as, salūtis, of safety, from older salūtes (507).

110. Only vowels which are short and atonic may be lost. The loss of a medial vowel is called Syncope; of an initial vowel, Aphaeresis; of a final vowel Apocope.

113. Apocope. Under the same conditions under which a medial vowel was syncopated, the final vowel of a word which stood in close union with the following word, as a preposition with its noun, was lost. In this way *peri (Greek περί) became per; *apo (Greek ἀπό) became ap, ab (164, 2); *eti (Greek ἔτι) became et. Similarly the final -e of the enclitics -ce, -ne, not, and -ne interrogative was lost: *sī-ce became sīc, so; *quī-ne, quīn, why not; habēsne, haben, hast thou; the imperatives dīc, say, dūc, lead, and fac, do, stand for earlier dīce, dūce, face (846); the shortened form em for eme (imperative of emere, take) has been turned into an interjection (1149). In the same way nec arose by the side of neque; ac by the side of atque (158). Final -e has also been dropped in the nominative sg. of a number of polysyllabic neuter stems in -āli and -āri (546): as, animal, animal, for *animāle, exemplar, pattern, for *exemplāre. See 536, 537. It must, however, be remembered that in most of the cases given the loss of a final vowel would also result from elision (119) before the initial vowel of the following word.

114. Hiatus. A succession of two vowel sounds not making a diphthong is called Hiatus.

116. Hiatus is maintained (a.) between two adjacent vowels the second of which is long and accented (according to the classical accentuation): as, coḗgi, I forced, and coā́ctus, forced (937); but cōgō (118, 3). For coepi, instead of coḗpī, I began, see 120.

117. Synizesis. In these combinations the first vowel is sometimes made unsyllabic (83). This is called synizesis (2499) and is not rare in poets, being often the only means of adapting a word to the requirements of certain metres. Thus, fortuītus (- ⏑ - ⏓) must appear in a hexameter as fortvītus (fortṷītus). See 2499, 2503.

118. Contraction. (1.) Two like vowels may unite in one long vowel; rapidity of utterance was favourable to such fusion. In compounds, the desire to keep the members distinct often prevented it. So always nēmō, nobody, for *neemō from *ne-hemō, no man (for the loss of h, see 58, 150; for e in *hemō, see 144); and by the side of the open forms, nīl from nihil, nothing; vēmēns from vehemēns, rapid (connected with the verb vehō); rarely dērunt, they will be wanting, and dēsse, to be wanting, for dēerunt, dēesse; dēlēram, I had destroyed, from *dēlēeram for dēlēveram (for the loss of v, see 153), see 890; passūm, of paces, for passuum (591).

119. Elision. Only rarely the first of two successive vowels is dropped: as, nūllus, no, for *ne-ūllus; likewise the final vowel of the first member of nominal compounds: as, multangulus, with many corners, for *multi-angulus (cf. multi-cavus, with many holes); flexanimus, heart-rending, for *flexi-animus (cf. flexi-pēs, with bent feet).

120. Combination into diphthongs. The union of two successive vowels into a diphthong is equally rare: o and i are combined to oi, oe, in coetus, meeting, by the side of the open form coïtus (116, b); the perfect coepī (812), I began, owes its diphthong oe to forms in which the e was short and unaccented, such as the rare present forms coepiō for có-ĕpiō (813); for coḗpi (813, 863) would have remained unchanged (116, a). neuter, with the accent on the e, was pronounced as three syllables, later eu became diphthongal; neutiquam with synizesis (117) of e. e and ī̆ sometimes contract to e͡i in rēi (601, 602) and in de͡inde, dēin in the classic poets.

121. Compensative lengthening. When certain groups of consonants are simplified by the dropping of a consonant, its time is absorbed by a preceding short vowel, which thereby becomes long. This is called Compensation. In many cases compensative lengthening is due to the loss of a preliterary sonant s (170, 2): as,

123. (1.) Analogical lengthening. In noun stems in -o the stem vowel is lengthened in the genitive plural -ōrum (449, 462), by analogy to the stems in -ā (435): as, servōrum, of slaves, like mēnsārum, of tables. For other cases see 122, e.

124. A vowel originally long is regularly shortened in classical Latin before another vowel, even though an h intervene: as,

132. A long vowel is regularly shortened, in the classical period, before final -t and -m and, in words of more than one syllable, also before final r and l.

133. (1.) In a few cases the length of the vowel has been transferred to the following consonant, the length of which is then indicated by doubling it (81): as, littera for lītera, LEITERAS; Iuppiter for Iūpiter; parricīda for pāri-cīda, murder of a member of the same clan (*pāro-, member of a clan, Doric πᾶός, a relative); cuppa for cūpa, barrel. The legal formula sī pāret, if it appear, was vulgarly pronounced sī parret (Festus).

134. (1.) In some foreign proper names and in a very few Latin words the quantity of a vowel varied. Vergil has Sȳchaeus and Sychaeus within six verses; also Āsia and Asia, Lavīnium and Lāvīnius; so also glōmus (Lucr.), glomus (

Hor.

135. The same stem often shows a long vowel in some of its forms and a short vowel in others. In most cases these variations of quantity were not developed on Latin soil but inherited from a much earlier period. Such old inherited differences in vowel quantity are called quantitative vowel gradation.

136. (1.) i before an r which goes back to an earlier voiced s (154) was changed to e: as, cineris, of ashes, for *cinisis, from the stem cinis (491); Faleriī, for *Falisiī, cf. Falis-cus; (formed like Etrūria, for *Etrūsia, cf. Etrūs-cī).

143. In a number of words, notably in voster, your, vorsus, turned, vortex, eddy, and votāre, forbid, the forms with o were replaced, about the second century B.C. by forms with e: as, vester, versus, vertex, vetāre (Quint. 1, 7, 25).

144. In a few cases a vowel is influenced by the vowel of a neighbouring syllable: as,

145. The same stem often shows different vowels in different forms. In most of these cases this difference was inherited from a very early period and continued in the Latin. Such old inherited variation of the quality of the stem-vowel is called qualitative vowel gradation. The qualitative variations may be accompanied by quantitative changes (135).

146. In a number of words which belong more or less clearly to the stem of the pronoun quo- (681), cu- (157), the initial c has disappeared before u: as,

161. Initial dv (dṷ) changed to b, unless the v (ṷ) was converted into the corresponding vowel: as, bis, twice, for *dṷis (cf. duo); bidēns for *dṷidens, by the side of old Latin duidēns with vocalic u; bonus, good, for dṷonus, by the side of trisyllabic duonus; bellum, war, for *dṷellum, by the side of duellum with vocalic u; bēs, two thirds, for *dṷēs (2427). Cicero (O. 153) notes that the change of duellum to bellum affected even the proper name Duellius (name of the admiral who won the naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260

B.

162. Many groups of consonants undergo changes in order to facilitate their pronunciation in rapid speech. These changes involve (a.) Assimilation of consonants; (b.) the development of consonantal glides; (c.) the loss of one member of the group; and (d.) the development of a vowel between the consonants.

163. Of two successive consonants belonging to different syllables (175), the first is, as a rule, assimilated to the second (regressive assimilation), rarely the second to the first (progressive assimilation). A consonant may be assimilated, either entirely or partially, to another consonant.

166. Entire assimilation. (1.) One mute is assimilated to another: thus p or b to c: as, suc-currō, I assist; t or d to c: as, sic-cus, dry (cf. sit-is, thirst), accipiō, I accept; d to g: as, agglūtinō, I glue on; t or d to qu: as, quicquam, anything; t or d to p: as, appellō, I call; quippe, why? (1690).

167. Pronunciation of two successive consonants is sometimes facilitated by the insertion of a consonant which serves as a glide. Such insertion is not frequent.

168. A word may be lightened by the disappearance of an initial, a medial, or a final consonant.

171. Final Disappearance. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, es for *es-s, thou art, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: ter for *terr from *ters (cf. terr-uncius, a quarter of an ās, a farthing, 1272, for *ters-uncius, 166, 8); fār, spelt, for *farr, from *fars (489); fel, gall, for *fell, from *fels (482); in mīles, soldier, for *mīless from *mīlets (cf. Gen. mīlitis, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. hoc, this, for *hocc from *hod-c(e)(the neuter *hod from the stem ho-, as istud, illud (107, c) from isto-, illo-) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.

172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called Anaptyxis (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, unfold). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).

173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables l is sometimes changed to r: as, caeruleus, sky-blue, for *caeluleus, from caelum; Parīlia, by the side of Palīlia, from Palēs; the suffix -clo- appears as -cro- after an l: as, lavācrum, bath, simulācrum, image (241); the suffix -āli- under like conditions changes to -āri-; as, molāre, of a mill (313), but augurāle, of an augur.

175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the Ultima; the last syllable but one is called the Penult; the last syllable but two is called the Antepenult.

176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.

177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by x or z: as,

178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or f followed by l or r is not long: as tenebrae. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as obruit.

180. Formation is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.

396. (

3.

198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a Primitive. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a Denominative.

183. A Root is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.

189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called Reduplication: as, mur-mur, murmur; tur-tur, turtle-dove; po-pul-us, people; ul-ul-āre, yell.

190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in -āre and -īre.

194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, lecti-stern-ium, a couch-spreading (sternere, √ster-, strā-); vinc-ibilis, conquerable (vincere, √vīc-); pāsc-uum, pasture (pāscere, √pā-); pect-en, comb (pectere, √pec-); fall-āx, deceitful (fallere, √fal-).

195. A Stem is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a Formative Suffix.

197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.

199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, duc-, N. dux, leader (√duc-, lead); rēg-, N. rēx, king (√rēg-, guide); particularly at the end of a compound: as, con-iug-, N. coniūnx, yoke-fellow, spouse (com-, √jug-, yoke); tubi-cin-, N. tubicen, trumpeter (tubā-, √can-, play).

364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as, diū, long, diūtius, diūtissimē; saepe, often, saepius, saepissimē; nūper, lately, no comparative, nūperrimē; secus, otherwise, sētius, the less; temperī, betimes, temperius, earlier, no superlative.

200. Simple formative suffixes are vowels: as, -ā-, -o-, -i-, -u-; also -io-, -uo-, (-vo-); or such little syllables as -mo-, -min-; -ro-, -lo-; -ōn-; -no-, -ni-, -nu-; -to-, -ti-, -tu-; -ter-, -tōr-; -unt- (-nt-); -es- (-er-), -ōr-; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. Compound suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, -tōr-io-, -ti-mo-, &c., &c.

203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix -io- (304) will be found -c-io-, -īc-io-, -tōr-io-, and -ār-io-. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.

204. The suffixes -tōr-, -o-, -ā-, -lo-, and -ōn-, are used to denote the Agent: as,

245. -bulo-, N. -bulu-m (202): pā-bulo-, N. pā-bulu-m, fodder (√pā-, keep); vēnā-bulu-m, hunting-spear (vēnā-rī); pat-ibulu-m, pillory (√pat-, stretch). -bulo- sometimes denotes the place where: sta-bulu-m, standing-place, stall (√sta-, stand). -bulā-, N. -bula, F., rare: sū-bula, awl (√su-, sew); ta-bula, board (√ta-, stretch); fā-bula, talk (√fā-, talk).

246. The suffixes -io-, -iā-; -tā-, -tāt-, -tūt-, -tū-din-, are used to denote the Quality: as,

279. Patronymics, or proper names which denote descent from a father or ancestor, have stems in -dā- (N. -dē-s), F. -d- (N. -s). These are chiefly Greek names used in poetry.

280. Primitive adjectives may usually be divided into active and passive; but the same suffix often has either an active or a passive meaning. Under primitive adjectives belong the participles; but these will be mentioned in connection with the verb.

297. The suffix -mino- (for -meno-, 103, a) in its weakest form (135, 2) is found in a few substantives: as, alu-mnu-s, nursling (√al-, nurse). The endings -minī (730) and -minō (731) are apparently case forms of the same suffix. -minō would seem to be an ablative; -minī may be a nominative plural.

298. Denominative adjectives may be divided into such as denote: I. Material or Resemblance. II. Appurtenance: implying sometimes possession, often fitness, conformity, character, or origin. III. Supply. IV. Diminutives. V. Comparatives and Superlatives; a few of these are primitive.

341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as, bellē, charmingly; paullulum, a little bit; meliusculē, a bit better (340).

342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as, dignior, worthier, dignissimus, worthiest, from digno-, stem of dignus. A few are formed directly from roots: thus, maior, greater, and maximus, greatest, are formed from the √mag-, and not from magno-, stem of magnus.

365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in -āre, -ēre, or -īre (-ārī, -ērī, or -īrī), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,

375. A few verbs in -uriō, -urīre, express desire; such are called Desideratives: as, ēss-urīre or ēs-urīre, want to eat (edere, ēsse). A few in -ssō, -ssere, express earnest action; such are called Meditatives: as, lacē-ssō, lacē-ssere, provoke.

376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.

379. If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as, Ahēno-barbus, Redbeard, Barbarossa; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as, aurifex, jeweller (auro-). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see 174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as, *venēni-ficus, venē-ficus, poisoner (venēno-); or of a vowel (111): as, man-ceps, contractor (manu-); particularly before a vowel (119): as, magn-animus, great-souled (magno-). Consonant stems are often extended by i before a consonant: as, mōri-gerus, complaisant (mōr-).

390. (4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as, prōcōnsul, proconsul, from prō cōnsule, for a consul; ēgregius, select, from ē grege, out of the herd; dēlīrus, astray, mad, from dē līrā, out of the furrow.

391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,

397. Inflection is the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.

398. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.

712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,

431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, frūgī, thrifty, an old dative; nēquam, naughty, an old accusative; quot, how many; tot, so many; and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.

399. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in -ā-, in -o-, in a consonant, or in -i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in -u- or -ē-; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.

401. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,

402. There are two genders, Masculine and Feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are called Gender nouns. Nouns without gender are called Neuter.

413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, epulum, neuter, epulae, feminine, feast. See balneum, frēnum, jocus, locus, margarīta, ostrea, rāstrum, in the dictionary.

414. There are two numbers, the Singular used of one, the Plural of more than one.

418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,

419. Nouns have five cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.

432. Stems in -ā- include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.

607. ēluviēs, offscouring, wash, has the nominative of the plural, and glaciēs, ice, has the accusative of the plural. Five words only have the nominative and accusative plural:

445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine -ās, -ēs: as, Prūsiās, Atrīdēs; feminine -ā: as, Gelā, Phaedrā; -ē: as, Circē. Genitive feminine -ēs: as, Circēs. Accusative masculine -ān, -dēn: as, Aenēān, Pēlīdēn; feminine -ēn: as, Circēn. Ablative feminine -ē: as, Tīsiphonē. Vocative -ā or -a: as, Atrīdā, Atrīda, Thyesta; -tē: as, Boōtē; -dē: as, Aeacidē.

446. Stems in -o- include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.

466. Greek stems in -o- are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have -os in the nominative, -on in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely -ū in the genitive, or -ō in the feminine ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes -oe, masculine or feminine, and genitive, chiefly in book-titles, -ōn: as,

467. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and include both gender words and neuters.

512. Some names in -is have forms either from a stem in -id-, or from one in -i-: as, Paris, G. Paridis, D. Paridī, Ac. Paridem, Parim or Parin, V. Pari.

513. Stems in -i- include both substantives and adjectives, gender words and neuters.

569. (b.) The following monosyllables: ās, unit, an as, faex, dregs, fraus, deceit, glīs, dormouse, līs, strife, lūx, light, mās, male, mūs, mouse, nox, night, stirps, trunk, vīs, strength. Also fauce, throat, and compede, fetter, both Ab., no N., and fornāx, furnace.

570. The gender of many of these substantives is determined by their meaning (404-412); that of participles used as substantives follows the gender of the substantive understood; Greek substantives follow the Greek gender. The gender of other words may be conveniently arranged for the memory according to the nominative endings as follows.

584. pecus, beast, is feminine; also tellūs, earth, and the substantives in -ūs which have -ūdis (475) or -ūtis (477) in the genitive: as, palūs, marsh; iuventūs, youth.

585. Stems in -u- are substantive only, and mostly masculine.

595. Some other substantives have an -u- stem in some of their cases, and an -o- stem in others: see angiportus, arcus, caestus, colus, cornū, cornus, cupressus, fīcus, fretus, gelus, laurus, murtus, penus, pīnus, quercus, rīctus, tonitrus, in the dictionary.

596. Stems in -ē- are substantive only, and feminine.

608. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and it has been shown already how their cases are formed. But they differ from substantives in having different forms in some of their cases to denote different genders; it is convenient therefore to put their complete declension together.

643. Ordinals, as prīmus, first, and distributives, as bīnī, two each, are declined like bonus (613). But distributives seldom have a singular, and often have the genitive plural -ū̆m (462): as, bīnū̆m.

613. Most adjectives with stems in -o- and -ā- are declined as follows:

620. The ordinary genitive and dative of -o- and -ā- stems, from some of the above words, is sometimes found: G. and D. aliae, sōlae, alterae, D. aliō, alterae, &c.

621. The only consonant stems of two endings are comparatives (346); they are declined as follows:

626. The plural caelitēs, heavenly, occupants of heaven, is also declined like the plural of dīves; the singular Ab. caelite occurs a couple of times. vetus, old, G. veteris, is also declined like dīves, but has a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. vetera; the Ab. S. is regularly vetere, but veterī is sometimes used.

627. A dozen adjectives with stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, have a distinctive form in -er for the masculine nominative singular; they are:

636. (2.) The following have -ī in the ablative, but -um of consonant stems in the genitive plural, and no nominative or accusative neuter plural: inops (535), without means, vigil (536), wide-awake, memor (537), remembering, dēgener, degenerate, ūber (537), prolific, has Ab. -ī, twice -e, Ne. Pl. once -a (Acc.). Compounds of pēs, as, bipēs (532), two-legged, have a late and rare Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. -ia.

637. Of the cardinals, ūnus, duo, trēs, and the hundreds except centum are declined. The other cardinals are not declined.

644. The pronoun of the first person, ego, I, of the second person, tū, thou, and the reflexive pronoun, suī, sē, himself, herself, itself, themselves, are declined as follows:

695. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

651. In inscriptions, the datives MIHEI, TIBEI, and SIBEI occur, so written in verse sometimes even when the last syllable is short; and MIHE, TIBE. Plural: D. and Ab. VOBEIS. Ac. ENOS in an old hymn; SEESE (29, 1).

652. The possessives of ego, tū, and suī, are meus, mine, tuus, thine, and suus, his, her, its, their (own), declined like bonus (613), except that meus has mī in the vocative singular masculine (459); those of nōs and vōs are noster, our, and voster, later vester, your, declined like aeger (617).

655. Emphasis is given (1.) by -met added to suō, suā, suōs, and to mea and sua, neuter plural: as, suōmet; (2.) by -pte, which is oftenest found with the ablative: as, suōpte.

656. Some pronouns have a peculiar genitive singular in -ī̆us and dative singular in -ī, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike.

659. Six words have a peculiar neuter nominative and accusative singular in -d: id, illud, istud, quid, quod, aliud, and derivatives. In manuscripts, -t is sometimes found for -d: as, it, illut, istut, &c.; sometimes also in inscriptions of the empire. In hoc for *hod-ce and in istuc and illuc for *istud-ce, *illud-ce, the d has vanished (166, 1; 171, 1).

660. The demonstrative pronouns are hīc, this, this near me; iste, istic, that, that near you; and ille, illic, yonder, that.

670. Rare forms are: N. and Ac. Ne. istoc, illoc, G. illīusce, D. illīc, Ab. F. istāce, illāce. Plural: N. M. illīsce (461), illīc, Ac. illōsce, illāsce. Before -ne interrogative, -ce becomes -ci-: N. illicine, istucine, Ac. illancine, Ab. istōcine, istācinē. Pl. Ac. istōscine.

671. The determinative pronoun is, that, the aforesaid, the one, is declined as follows:

675. A rare and old pronoun equivalent to is is sum, sam, accusative singular, sōs, accusative plural, and sīs, dative plural.

676. The pronoun of identity, īdem, the same, is declined as follows:

678. Other case forms of īdem are found in inscriptions, as follows:

679. The intensive pronoun ipse, himself, stems ipso-, ipsā-, is declined like ille (666), but has the nominative and accusative neuter singular ipsum.

680. In dramatic verse, ipse has rarely the first syllable short, and often has the older form ipsus. Plautus has these forms: N. F. eapse, Ac. eumpse, eampse, Ab. eōpse, eāpse, equivalent to ipsa, &c. So reāpse for rē ipsā.

681. The stem qui-, or quo-, quā-, is used in three ways: as a relative, who, which; as an interrogative, who? which? what? as an indefinite, any.

694. The derivatives of uter are declined like uter; they are:

696. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases, even in the developed period of the language; with others the consciousness of their noun character was lost.

698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative is sometimes more exactly defined by a preposition. The preposition may either accompany its usual case: as, adamussim, admodum, īlicō; or it may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used: as, examussim, intereā. Sometimes it stands after the noun: as, parumper, a little while. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recognized as such: see 710.

699. domum, homeward, home; rūs, afield; forās, out of doors (*forā-); vicem, instead; partim, in part; old noenum or noenu, common nōn, for ne-oenum, i.e. ūnum, not one, naught, not; admodum, to a degree, very; adamussim, examussim, to a T; adfatim, to satiety; invicem, in turn, each other.

702. Feminines: bifāriam, twofold; cōram, face to face (com- or co-, *ōrā-); tam, so (tā-, that); quam, as, how. Plural: aliās, on other occasions.

703. domō, from home, rūre, from the country; hodiē, to-day (ho-, diē-), volgō, publicly, vespere, by twilight, noctū, by nights, nights, lūce, by light, tempore, in times, betimes; sponte, voluntarily, forte, by chance; quotannīs, yearly; grātiīs or grātīs, for nothing, ingrātiīs or ingrātīs, against one’s will; īlicō, on the spot (169, 4; 170, 2), forīs, out of doors (*forā-).

707. Feminines: many in -ā: ūnā, together; circā, around; contrā, against (com-, 347); extrā, outside (ex, 347); in classical Latin, frūstrā, in vain (fraud-). So, especially, adverbs denoting the ‘route by which:’ hāc, this way; rēctā, straightway.

708. In -ī, from names of towns and a few other words: Karthāginī, at Carthage; Rōmae, for Rōmāī, at Rome; domī, at

home;

709. In -bī̆, from some pronouns: ibī̆, there (i-); ubī̆ (for *quobī̆, 146), where; alicubī̆, somewhere; sī-cubi, if anywhere, nē-cubi, lest anywhere.

710. Besides the above, other endings are also found in words of this class: as,

711. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.

742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, ā, ē, i, ī: thus, laudās, monēs, regis, audīs, sometimes called the first, second, third, and fourth conjugation respectively.

714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.

720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, maereō, mourn; some have only the perfect system: as, meminī, remember. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative ferō, carry, perfect indicative tulī, and perfect participle lātus; present possum, can, perfect potuī.

721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three Persons, the First, used of the speaker, the Second, of what is spoken to, and the Third, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.

731. Deponents have rarely -mino, in the imperative singular: as, second person, prōgredimino, step forward thou (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, let him enjoy; or -tō and -ntō for -tor and -ntor: as, ūtitō, let him use; ūtuntō, let them use. In a real passive, -ntō is rare: as, CENSENTO, let them be rated.

732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:

733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.

735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Participle: as,

736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, regō; laudō, moneō, audiō; or by the present infinitive active: as, regere; laudāre, monēre, audīre. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, queror; mīror, vereor, partior; or querī; mīrārī, verērī, partīrī.

737. For convenience, verbs with -ere in the present infinitive active are called Verbs in -ere; those with -āre, -ēre, or -īre, Verbs in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as Verbs in -ī; or Verbs in -ārī, -ērī, or -īrī, respectively.

738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the Theme. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.

740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, or, if deponent, in -ārī, -ērī, or -īrī, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.

741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in -ere, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in -āre, -ēre, or -īre, mostly denominative.

743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called Root Verbs, or by some, irregular (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in -ere, like regō (782).

791. Some verbs in -iō, -ere (or -ior, -ī), have occasionally the form of verbs in -īre (or -īrī), in some parts of the present system, oftenest before an r, and particularly in the passive infinitive: as,

744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are sum, am, dō, give, put, and compounds; and with the root doubled, bibō, drink, serō, sow, and sistō, set.

745. sum, am, is used only in the present system (720). The perfect system is supplied by forms of fuī (fu-).

750. A subjunctive present fuam, fuās, fuat, and fuant occurs in old Latin; and an imperfect forem, forēs, foret, and forent, in all periods. The present infinitive fore, to get to be, become, has a future meaning. Old forms in the perfect system are FVVEIT (29, 1), FVET; fūit, fūimus, fūerim, fūerit, fūerint, fūisset (Plaut., Enn.). fuī has no perfect participle or supine.

751.

753. t is retained before a vowel, except in possem, &c., for potessem, &c., and in posse; t before s changes to s (166, 2). Old forms are: possiem, &c., (748), potessem, potisset, potesse. Rare forms are POTESTO (inscr. 58 B.C.), and passives, as potestur, &c., with a passive infinitive (1484). possum has no participles; the perfect system, potuī, &c., is like fuī, &c. (745).

754. There are two verbs dō, one meaning give, and one meaning put. The dō meaning put is oftenest used in compounds; the simple verb has been crowded out by pōnō. The present system of dō is as follows:

757. Real compounds of dō have a present system like regō (782); in the perfect and the perfect participle, e and a become i: as, abdō, put away, abdere, abdidī, abditus; crēdō, put trust in. perdō, fordo, destroy, and vēndō, put for sale, have gerundives perdendus, vēndundus, and perfect participles perditus, vēnditus; the rest of the passive is supplied by forms of pereō and vēneō. reddō, give back, has future reddibō 3 times (Plaut.). In the apparent compounds with circum, pessum, satis, and vēnum, dō remains without change, as in 754.

758. bibō, drink, serō, sow (for *si-sō, 154), and sistō, set, form their present stem by reduplication of the root (189). The vowel before the person endings is the root vowel, which becomes variable, like a formative vowel (824). These verbs have the present system like regō (782).

759. inquam, eō, and queō have the bare root as present stem, in almost all their parts; in a few parts only the root is extended by a formative vowel (829).

761. Rare forms are: subjunctive inquiat (Cornif.), indicative imperfect inquiēbat (Cic.), used twice each; indicative present inquimus (Hor.), perfect inquiī (Catull.), inquīstī (Cic.), once each; imperative inque, 4 times (Plaut. 2, Ter. 2), inquitō, 3 times (Plaut.). For inquam, see 728.

762.

767. A few examples are found of a perfect system with v, as īvī, &c. This form is confined almost exclusively to poetry and late prose.

768. queō, can, and nequeō, can’t, have the perfect quīvī, the rest like eō (762); but they have no imperative, gerundive, or future participle, and the present participle is rare. queō is commonly used with a negative, and some parts only so. Passive forms are rare, and only used with a passive infinitive (1484).

769. edō, eat, has a present system with a formative vowel like regō throughout (782); but in some parts of the present, and of the imperfect subjunctive, parallel root forms are usually found, with d of the root changed to s, and the vowel lengthened (135), as may be seen in the following:

771. comedō, eat up, has also the following root forms: comēs, comēst, comēstis; comēstō; comēsse; comēssēs, comēsset, comēssēmus. The present subjunctive has also comedim, comedīs, comedint. The participle perfect is comēssus, comēsus, or comēstus, future comēssūrus. exedō, eat out, has exēst and exēsse; subjunctive exedint. adedō, eat at, has adēst.

772. volō (nōlō, mālō) and ferō have the bare root in some parts only of the present system; in other parts the root extended by a formative vowel, like regō (782). volō (nōlō, mālō) lack some forms, as will be seen below.

779. Old forms are māvolō, māvolunt; māvolet; māvelim, māvelīs, māvelit; māvellem. The perfect system, māluī, &c., is like that of volō (772).

780. ferō, carry, is used only in the present system (720). The other parts are supplied by forms of tollō, lift (tol-, tlā-). The present system of ferō is as follows:

781. For tulī, see 860; the full form tetulī, &c., is found in old Latin, and TOLI, &c., in inscriptions; the compound with re- is rettulī for *retetulī (861). For the participle lātus, see 169, 1.

782.

783.

784. Verbs in -iō, -ere, as capiō, capere, take (cap-), drop an i in some forms of the present and imperfect. The present system is as follows:

785. There are a dozen verbs in

-īō

786. aiō, say, is defective, and has only these parts in common use:

787. For aiō, sometimes written aiiō (23), see 153, 2. Old forms are: present ais, aīs, a͡is, or with -n interrogative

āin

788. fīō, become, and factus sum supplement each other: in the present system, the passive of faciō, make, except the gerundive, faciendus, is not used, fīō, &c., taking its place; in the perfect system, only factus sum, &c., is used.

790. -fīō is used in apparent compounds (394): as, patē̆fit. In real compounds commonly -ficior: as, cōnficior; but sometimes -fīō: as, cōnfit, cōnfīunt, cōnfīat, cōnfieret, cōnfierent, cōnfī̆erī; dēfit, dēfīet, dēfīat, dēfierī; effit, effīant, ecfīerī; īnfit; interfīat, interfīerī; superfit, superfīat.

792.

797.

793.

794.

795.

796.

798. Deponents, that is, verbs with passive person endings and a reflexive or an active meaning (725), have these active noun forms: participles, the future infinitive, the gerund, and the supines. The perfect participle is usually active, but sometimes passive; the gerundive always passive. The following is a synopsis of deponents:

801. A few verbs are deponent in the present system only: as, dēvortor, turn in, perfect dēvortī; revortor, turn back, perfect revortī, but with active perfect participle revorsus. Four are deponent in the perfect system only: fīdō, trust, fīdere, fīsus, and the compounds, cōnfīdō, diffīdō; and audeō, dare, audēre, ausus, gaudeō, feel glad, gaudēre, gāvīsus, and soleō, am used, solēre, solitus. Most impersonals in -ēre have both an active and a deponent form in the perfect system: see 815, 816.

802. (1.) The future active participle with a form of sum is used to denote an intended or future action: as,

804. (2.) The gerundive with a form of sum is used to denote action which requires to be done: as,

805. (1.) Some verbs have only a few forms: as,

817. Of the impersonals in -ēre, some have other forms besides the third person singular and the infinitives: as,

818. (1.) Some verbs have more than one form of the present stem: thus,

823. (2.) Some verbs have more than one form of the perfect stem: as,

824. The final vowel of a tense stem is said to be variable when it is -o- in some of the forms, and -u-, -e-, or -i- in others.

919. As citus, so always percitus and incitus (once incītus, doubtful); usually concitus, rarely concītus; excitus and excītus equally common; always accītus. ambītus always has long ī (763). āgnitus, recognized, cōgnitus, known, and the adjectives inclutus or inclitus, of high renown, and putus, clean, have a short root vowel. For dēfrūtum, dēfrutum, see 134, 1.

827. In old Latin, the stem vowel of the third person plural of the present was o: as, COSENTIONT; o was long retained after v, u, or qu (107, c): as, vīvont, ruont, sequontur; or, if o was not retained, qu became c: as, secuntur.

828. A root without addition is used as the present stem, in the present tense or parts of the present tense, in root verbs (744-781): as,

840. In many of the forms, the final vowel of the theme is contracted with the variable vowel: as,

841. The suffix of the present subjunctive of sum, am, is -ī-, which becomes -i- before -m, -t, and -nt: si-m, sī-s, si-t, sī-mus, sī-tis, si-nt (35, 2, 3). So also in the singular and in the third person plural, dui-m, &c. (756), and edi-m, &c. (769), and in all the persons, veli-m, &c. (nōli-m, &c., māli-m, &c.). An old suffix is -iē- (-ie-), in sie-m, siē-s, sie-t, and sie-nt.

843. (2.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in -āre ends in -ē-, which becomes -e- in some of the persons: as,

844. Root verbs have a root as imperative stem (745-780): as, es, &c., fer, &c. But the imperative of nōlō has a stem in -ī-, like verbs in -īre: thus, nōlī, nōlī-tō, nōlī-te, nōlī-tōte.

846. The second person singular imperative active of dīcō, dūcō, and faciō, is usually dīc, dūc, and fac, respectively, though the full forms, dīce, &c., are also used, and are commoner in old Latin. Compounds of dūcō may have the short form: as, ēdūc. ingerō has once inger (Catull.). sciō has regularly the singular scī-tō, plural scī-tōte, rarely scī-te.

847. The imperfect indicative stem ends in -bā-, which becomes -ba- in some of the persons: as,

848. The suffix of the imperfect indicative of sum, am, is -ā-, which becomes -a- before -m, -t, and -nt (35, 2, 3)

the

849. The imperfect subjunctive stem ends in -rē-, which becomes -re- in some of the persons: as,

850. The suffix of the imperfect subjunctive of sum, am, is -sē-, which becomes -se- in some of the persons; esse-m, essē-s, esse-t, essē-mus, essē-tis, esse-nt; so also ēssē-s, &c. (769). volō, wish, nōlō, won’t, and mālō, prefer, have velle-m, nōlle-m, and mālle-m respectively (166, 8

). 

851. The future stem of sum, am, is er^o|_e-: erō, eri-s, eri-t, eri-mus, eri-tis, eru-nt. dō has dabō, eō has ībō, and queō has quībō.

853. (2.) The future stem of verbs in -āre and -ēre ends in -b^o|_e-, which is preceded by a form ending in long -ā- or -ē- respectively: as,

854. There are two kinds of perfect stems: (A.) Some verbs have as perfect stem a root, generally with some modification, but without a suffix (858-866). (B.) Some perfects are formed with a suffix, -s-, or -v- or -u- (867-875).

875. The perfect potuī to the present possum (751) is from a lost present *poteō, *potēre (922). pōnere (for *po-sinere, 112; 170, 2) forms an old perfect posīvī (964), later posuī, as if pos- were the stem.

876. The perfect subjunctive stem ends in -erī-, for which -eri- is sometimes used (35, 2, 3): as,

878. In the perfect subjunctive, short i is found, as in the future perfect, some 9 times, thus: -is, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3), -imus once (Verg.). But before -tis, short i is not found.

879. One verb only, meminī, remember, has a perfect imperative; in this imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus: memen-tō, memen-tōte.

880. The pluperfect indicative stem ends in -erā-, which becomes -era- in some of the persons: as,

881. The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in -issē-, which becomes -isse- in some of the persons: as,

882. The future perfect stem ends in -erō- and -eri-: as,

884. In the future perfect, long ī is found, as in the perfect subjunctive, some 33 times, thus: -īs, 28 times (Plaut. 3, Hor. 5, Ov. 15, Prop., Stat., Mart., Priap., inscr., once each), -īmus, once (Catull.), -ītis, 4 times (Ov. 3, Priap. 1).

885. (1.) Some shorter forms in the perfect system are principally found in old Latin.

893. (b.) In tenses formed from perfect stems in -īv-, v is often dropped before -is-, -ēr-, or -er-; but contraction is common only in the forms which have -is-: as,

894. The active infinitive has the ending -re in the present, and -isse in the perfect: as,

898. The place of the perfect passive, future active, and future passive infinitive is supplied by a circumlocution, as seen in the paradigms. For the future perfect -āssere, see 887.

899. The gerundive stem is formed by adding -ndo-, nominative -ndus, -nda, -ndum, to the present stem: as,

900. The supine stem is formed by the suffix -tu-, which is often changed to -su- (912).

901. The present participle stem is formed by adding -nt- or -nti-, nominative -ns, to the present stem: as,

903. Some adjectives which were originally present participles have no verb: as, clēmēns, merciful, ēlegāns, choice, ēvidēns, clear, frequēns, thick, petulāns, wanton, recēns, fresh, repēns, sudden, &c., &c. For potēns, powerful, see 922.

904. The future participle suffix is -tūro-, nominative -tūrus, -tūra, -tūrum, which is often changed to -sūro-, nominative -sūrus, -sūra, -sūrum (912).

905. Some future participles have a different formation from that of the perfect participle: as, mortuus, dead, moritūrus; see also in the dictionary arguō, fruor, orior, ruō, secō. And some verbs have two forms of the future participle: as, āgnōscō, īgnōscō, hauriō, iuvō, pariō. Some verbs which have no perfect participle have a future participle: as, acquiēscō, appāreō, ardeō, caleō, careō, doleō, ēsuriō, fugiō, haereō, incidō, iaceō, -nuō, parcō, rauciō, recidō, sonō, stō, valeō.

906. The perfect participle suffix is -to-, nominative -tus, -ta, -tum, which is often changed to -so-, nominative -sus, -sa, -sum (912).

920. I. The principal parts of root verbs and of verbs in -ere are formed in a variety of ways and are best learned separately for every verb (922-986).

1023. A Sentence is a thought expressed by means of a verb. The Subject is that which is spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the subject.

2299. A passive with a verb meaning represent is expressed, for lack of a present passive participle, by the infinitive (2175). The infinitive active is rare.

1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is called a Protasis; the main sentence which completes the thought is called an Apodosis: as,

1025. The sentence may be declarative, stating a fact, exclamatory, crying out about something, interrogative, asking a question, or imperative, giving a command.

1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words having the value of a substantive.

1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called Impersonal. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,

1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeterminate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the sense.

1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So particularly such everyday verbs as mean am, do, say, come, and go, in proverbs and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or description: as,

1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of attributes, appositives, or objects.

1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.

1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.

1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an adverb.

1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two different ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate; or II. Subordinate.

1056. A Compound Sentence is one which consists of two or more coordinate simple sentences: as,

1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members have parts in common: as,

1058. A Complex Sentence is one which consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: as,

1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: as,

1098. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun in agreement with a substantive is often equivalent to a genitive limiting the substantive: as,

1076. If the subjects are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second or the third, and the second to the third: as,

1077. A substantive which explains another substantive referring to the same thing is put in the same case.

1081. A substantive in the accusative or nominative is sometimes in apposition to a thought or clause: as,

1082. An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, agrees with its substantive in number, gender, and case: as,

1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes used in a collective sense.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, stultior stultissumō, Pl. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest fool. ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima, Fam. 14, 3, 1, I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.

1110. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical convenience: as, advēnisse familiārēs dīcitō, Pl. Am. 353, say that the people of the house are come, the plural familiārēs denoting one person. Priamī dum rēgna manēbant, V. 2, 22, while Priam’s realms still stood. externōs optāte ducēs, V. 8, 503, choose captains from a foreign strand, i.e. Aeneas.

1111. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the secondary.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, per is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, per tē de͡ōs ōrō, T. Andr. 538, I beg thee by the gods, in the gods’ name.

1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predicate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nominative occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).

1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by ō, but only in impassioned addresses: as, ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, Arch. 24, oh thou thrice blest youth; also by prō in addresses to gods, by eho and heus in calls on men. Rarely by au, ehem, hem, ē̆heu, eia or heia, iō.

1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles, or headings: as,

1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence for some other case: as, Gabīniō cōgnōmen ‘Cauchius’ ūsurpāre concessit, Suet. Cl. 24, he allowed Gabinius to take the surname ‘Cauchius;’ (compare Catō quasi cōgnōmen habēbat Sapientis, L. 6, Cato had the virtual surname of the Wise). ‘Marsya’ nōmen habet, O. 6, 400, it has the name of ‘Marsyas;’ (compare nōmen Dānuvium habet, S. Fr. 3, 55, it has the name Danube), resonent mihi ‘Cynthia’ silvae, Prop. 1, 18, 31, let woods reecho ‘Cynthia’ for me; (compare tū, Tītyre, fōrmōsam resonāre docēs Amaryllida silvas, V. E. 1, 4, thou, Tityrus, dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis Fair).

1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,

1118. The vocative nominative is used when a person or thing is addressed: as,

1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by the accusative are all of one general kind; but they vary somewhat, according to the nature of the verb.

1174. The accusative of extent or duration, or of aim of motion is often combined with that of the object: as,

1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative: as,

1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes have a transitive use with an accusative: as,

1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusative of kindred derivation added.

1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a substantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, ōrātiōnēs aut aliquid id genus, Att. 13, 12, 3, speeches or something that kind. aucupium omne genus, Cat. 114, 3, fowling of every kind. nūgās hoc genus, H. S. 2, 6, 43, small talk—this kind. hoc genus in rēbus, Lucr. 6, 917, in matters of this kind. cum id aetātis fīliō, Clu. 141, with a son of that age. Similarly diēs quīndecim supplicātiō, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving.

1147. Poets use the accusative to express the part concerned, especially a part of the human body: as,

1148. The accusative is used with reflexive verbs in poetry to denote the thing put on: as,

1149. The accusative is used in exclamations, sometimes merely to call attention to something, but generally with a predicate to express a judgment with emphasis.

1150. The accusative is used in excited orders, appeals, and questions, without any verb expressed, or even distinctly felt: as, Tiberium in Tiberim, Suet. Tib. 75, Tiberius to the Tiber. dī vostram fidem, T. Andr. 716, ye gods your help. prō fidem, Thēbānī cīvēs, Pl. Am. 376, oh help, or murder, ye citizens of Thebes. So with unde, quō, and quandō, often followed by mihī̆ or tibī̆: as, quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī? H. E. 1, 5, 12, why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use?

1151. Extent of space or duration of time is denoted by the accusative: as,

1156. The accusative in some pronominal expressions and adverbs passes over from ‘time through which’ to a loose ‘time at which’: as, id temporis, RA. 97, at that time. hoc noctis, Pl. Am. 163^b, at this time of night. tum, then, num, nunc, now, nunc ipsum, Pl. B. 940, Att. 10, 4, 10, this very minute, commodum, just in time. For the locative ablative exceptionally used to denote duration, see 1355.

1157. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote the aim with expressions of motion: as,

1166. With the accusative in -tum (or -sum), called the supine, the idea of ‘aim’ passes over into that of ‘purpose:’ as mīlitātum abiīt, T. Hau. 117, he’s gone away a soldiering (2270).

1167. Many verbs may take two accusatives, an object and a predicate.

1175. The dative denotes that for or to which a thing is or is done, and either accompanies single words, such as verbs, adjectives, sometimes adverbs, rarely substantives, or serves to modify the entire sentence. It has two principal uses.

1225. The dative receptuī is also used in military language to denote purpose: as, Caesar receptuī canī iussit, 7, 47, 1, Caesar ordered the retreat sounded. Quīnctius receptuī canere iussit, L. 34, 39, 13. This dative is sometimes attached immediately to a substantive: as, receptuī sīgnum, Ph. 13, 15, the trumpet for retreat.

1180. Many verbs require a dative to complete their meaning.

1199. A few compound verbs admit either the dative of the person or thing and accusative of the thing, or the accusative of the person or thing and ablative of the thing; such are adspergō and īnspergō, circumdō, circumfundō, exuō and induō, impertiō, interclūdō; also the uncompounded dōnō: as, praedam mīlitibus dōnat, 7, 11, 9, he presents the booty to the soldiers. scrībam tuum ānulō dōnāstī, V. 3, 185, you presented your clerk with a ring. For the different constructions of interdīcō, see the dictionary.

1200. The dative with many adjectives and some adverbs denotes that to which the quality is directed.

1204. In Plautus and Terence, similis, the like, the counterpart, and its compounds, regularly take the genitive. The dative, as well as the genitive, is also used from Ennius on, particularly of a limited or approximate likeness: see the dictionary.

1205. The dative of a person or thing interested, benefited, harmed, may be added at option to almost any verb: as,

1210. With verbs of motion the dative of the person interested denotes in poetry the end of motion also: as, multōs Danaūm dēmittimus Orcō, V. 2, 398, we send down many a Danaan for the nether king. So also the dative of personified words of place: as, it clāmor caelō, V. 5, 451, up goes a shout for heaven, i.e. heaven hears a shout. sēdibus hunc refer ante suīs, V. 6, 152, first bear him duly to his place of rest, i.e. let his expectant grave receive him.

1211. The dative of the personal pronoun is often used with expressions of emotion, interest, surprise, or derision: as,

1212. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the possessor: as,

1216. This dative is sometimes used with the perfect participle, and the tenses formed with it: as, mihī̆ est ēlabōrātum, Caecil. 40, I have it all worked out. carmina nūlla mihī sunt scrīpta, O. Tr. 5, 12, 35, no poetry have I ready made. Rarely with passives of the present system: as, nūlla placēre diū nec vīvere carmina possunt, quae scrībuntur aquae pōtōribus, H. E. 1, 19, 2, no verse can take or be longlived that by teetotallers is writ.

1217. The dative may denote the person viewing or judging: as,

1218. In imitation of a Greek idiom, volēns, cupiēns, or invītus, is used by Sallust and Tacitus in agreement with a dative dependent on a form of sum, the combination being equivalent to a subject with a form of volō, cupiō, or invītus sum, respectively: as, cēterīs remanēre volentibus fuit, Ta. H. 3, 43, i.e. cēterī remanēre voluērunt, the rest were minded to bide where they were. Once in Livy.

1219. (1.) Certain datives are used with a form of sum to denote what a thing tends to, proves, or is. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested: as,

1222. (2.) The dative is also used with a few verbs of considering or accounting to denote what a thing is accounted.

1223. A few datives are used to denote what a thing is intended to be. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested.

1226. The genitive is principally used with nouns, less frequently with verbs. Sometimes even when it seems to be dependent on a verb, it really depends on a substantive understood, or on a noun virtually contained or implied in the verb. Some verbs require an accusative also, in addition to the genitive.

1295. In poetry, the genitive with an adjective in agreement occurs two or three times in exclamation: as, foederis heu tacitī, Prop. 5, 7, 21, alas, that secret covenant. Usually the nominative (1117), or the accusative (1149).

1227. A substantive is often limited by another substantive in the genitive.

1231. The relations expressed by the limiting genitive vary very much according to the context. These relations may be put in classes, as below (1232-1260). But it must be remembered that as the genitive connects substantives in a loose way, the same construction may sometimes be referred to more than one head.

1232. (1.) The genitive is used to denote that which does the action, or which causes, originates, or possesses the object designated by the substantive it limits: as,

1238. With the possessive genitive, the limited substantive is sometimes defined by commūnis, proprius or aliēnus, sacer, or tōtus added: as, hoc proprium virtūtis exīstimant, 6, 23, 2, this they consider a special characteristic of bravery. omnia quae nostra erant propria, RA. 150, everything which was our peculiar property (1234). illa īnsula eōrum deōrum sacra putātur, V. 1, 48, that island is considered the hallowed property of those gods. iam mē Pompēī tōtum esse scīs, Fam. 2, 13, 2, you are aware that I am become Pompey’s, out and out.

1239. (2.) The genitive with an adjective in agreement is used to denote quality, either attributively or predicatively: as,

1240. A substantive expressing quality with aequus, pār, similis, or dissimilis in agreement, is put not in the genitive, but in the ablative, by Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy.

1241. (3.) The partitive genitive denotes a whole of which the limited substantive denotes a part. There are two kinds of partitive genitive, the numerical and the quantitative: as,

1254. In Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, genitives of abstracts are used with the adverbs eō, quō, and hūc: as, eō miseriārum, S. I. 14, 3, to that pitch of distress. Ones with ut: ut quisque audentiae habuisset, adcurrerent, Ta. 15, 53, they should run up, with a speed commensurate in every case to their daring.

1255. (4.) The genitive is used to define that of which a thing consists: as,

1259. quidquid est, quantum est, quod est, or quodcumque est, with a genitive, is equivalent to an emphatic omnis: as, quidquid patrum est, L. 3, 17, 5, whatever there is in the shape of senators, i.e. every single senator. quod est pecūniae, trādit, Caes. C. 2, 20, 8, what there is in the-way of money, he hands over. Similarly tantum for tot: as, tantum hominum, Pl. Poen. 619, such a mass of men.

1260. (5.) The objective genitive denotes the object of the action expressed in the limited substantive: as,

1262. A possessive pronoun or adjective is sometimes used for the objective genitive: as,

1263. (1.) The genitive is used with many adjectives to denote the object.

1270. (3.) In poetry and late prose, the genitive is used very freely with many adjectives of various meanings, often merely to indicate what they apply to: as,

1271. A few neuter adjectives of quantity are put in the genitive with verbs of valuing to denote the amount of estimation; such genitives are:

1275. A similar genitive occurs in one or two set forms, such as aequī bonīque dīcō, or faciō, aequī faciō, and bonī cōnsulō: as, istūc, Chremēs, aequī bonīque faciō, T. Hau. 787, I count that, Chremes, fair and good. aequī istūc faciō, Pl. MG. 784, that’s all the same to me.

1276. rēfert and interest, it concerns, are much alike in meaning and in construction. But the use of rēfert is characteristic of old Latin and poetry; in prose from Cicero on it is almost supplanted by interest, especially where persons are concerned.

1279. The matter of concern is expressed by a sentence or infinitive, or by a neuter pronoun; rarely by an appellative: as, nōn quō meā interesset locī nātūra, Att. 3, 19, 1, not that the character of the place concerned me. The degree of concern is expressed by an adverb, as magnopere, by a neuter accusative, as multum, or by a genitive of estimation, magnī, permagnī, plūris, parvī, tantī, quantī (1271).

1280. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitting, take a genitive of the charge: as,

1282. The penalty also is sometimes denoted by the genitive: as, cupiō octuplī damnārī Aprōnium, V. 3, 28, I want to have Apronius condemned to a payment of eightfold. damnātusque longī Sīsyphus Aeolidēs labōris, H. 2, 14, 19, and Sisyphus the Aeolid, amerced with penance long. Sometimes by the ablative: as, capite, V. 5, 109. So usually from Livy on, when the penalty is a definite sum of money or fractional part of a thing.

1283. A genitive of the thing, commonly with an accusative of the person, is used with five impersonals of mental distress:

1286. Personal verbs of desiring, loathing, admiring, and dreading, sometimes take the genitive: as, pol, quamquam domī cupiō, opperiar, Pl. Tri. 841, although I yearn for home, I vow I’ll wait (1263). fastīdit meī, Pl. Aul. 245, he views me with disdain (1263). iūstitiaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum? V. 11, 126, thy justice first shall I admire? thy toils in war? nē tuī quidem testimōnī veritus, Att. 8, 4, 1, not having any awe about your recommendation either.

1287. The genitive is used with verbs of remembering and forgetting when they denote an inherent state of memory or of forgetfulness: as,

1291. Verbs of reminding take the accusative of a person and sometimes with it the genitive of a thing: as,

1292. Verbs of participation and mastery sometimes take the genitive in old Latin and in poetry: as, servom su͡i participat cōnsilī, Pl. Cist. 163, she makes a slave a sharer in her plot (1263). quā Daunus agrestium rēgnāvit populōrum, H. 3, 30, 11, where Daunus was the lord of rural folk (1260). So, even in prose, potior, which usually has the ablative (1379): as, totīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant, 1, 3, 8, they hope they can get the mastery over the whole of Gaul. Especially with persons, or with the genitive plural rērum: rērum potior, get to be, or often, am, master of the situation, or I am monarch of all I survey. Similarly in Tacitus apīscor, adipīscor: as, arma, quīs Servius Galba rērum adeptus est, Ta. 3, 55, the war by which Galba became master of the throne. In Plautus crēdō sometimes has the genitive of a thing and dative of a person.

1293. The genitive is sometimes used with verbs of filling, abounding, and lacking, as it is with the corresponding adjectives (1263): as,

1294. With verbs of separating and abstaining, the ablative is regularly used (1302). But the genitive is sometimes found in poetry: as, mē omnium labōrum levās, Pl. R. 247, thou riddest me of all my woes. abstinētō īrārum calidaeque rixae, H. 3, 27, 69, from bursts of rage keep thou and hot affray.

1296. The ablative is used principally with verbs and their participles, or with adjectives, and consists of three cases that were originally distinct.

1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are often combined in the same sentence: as,

1302. Verbs of separation take an ablative of the thing from which separation takes place: as,

1311. (2.) The ablatives domō and rūre, and in poetry humō, are used like proper names of towns: as,

1312. The verb nāscor and participles of origin take an ablative to denote parentage or rank in life.

1315. The ablative with forms of faciō and sum denotes that with which or to which something is done: as, quid hōc homine faciās? Sest. 29, what can you do with such a fellow? quid mē fīet? T. Andr. 709, what will become of me? But often the dative (1205): as, quid tibī̆ faciam? Att. 7, 3, 2, what shall I do to you? Or the ablative with dē: as, dē frātre quid fīet? T. Ad. 996, as to my brother, what will come to pass?

1316. The ablative is used to denote cause, influence, or motive: as,

1319. In poetry, an ablative denoting a person, with an adjective in agreement, is sometimes equivalent to an expression with an abstract substantive: as, et adsiduō ruptae lēctōre columnae, J. 1, 13, and pillars by persistent reader riven, i.e. adsiduitāte lēctōris, or adsiduā lēctiōne. cūrātus inaequālī tōnsōre capillōs, H. E. 1, 1, 94, my locks by unsymmetric barber trimmed.

1320. (1.) The ablative may be used with a comparative adjective, when the first of two things compared is in the nominative, or is a subject-accusative.

1330. With a comparative adjective or adverb, the ablatives opīniōne, exspectātiōne, and spē, and some others, chiefly in poetry, take the place of a sentence with quam: as,

1331. (1.) Singular proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

1341. The locative proper sometimes denotes time when: as, lūcī, by light, temperī, betimes, herī or here, yesterday, vesperī, at evening, herī vesperī, DO. 2, 13, last evening. In Plautus, diē septimī, Men. 1156, Per. 260, on the seventh day, māne sānē septimī, Men. 1157, bright and early on the seventh, diē crāstinī, Most. 881, tomorrow. Often with an adjective juxtaposed: as, postrīdiē, the day after, postrīdiē māne, Fam. 11, 6, 1, early next day, cōtīdiē, each day, daily, prīdiē, the day before.

1342. (1.) Plural proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative ablative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

1349. The locative ablative is used with fīdō and cōnfīdō, glōrior, laetor, nītor, stō, and with frētus: as, barbarī cōnfīsī locī nātūrā in aciē permānsērunt, 8, 15, 1, the natives, trusting in the nature of their position, kept their stand in battle array. superiōribus vīctōriis frētī, 3, 21, 1, relying on their former victories. For other constructions with these words, see the dictionary.

1350. (1.) The locative ablative is used to denote the point of time at which action occurs.

1355. The ablative is exceptionally used to denote duration of time: as,

1356. A few indefinite designations of military forces denote accompaniment by the ablative alone, or oftener with cum: as,

1357. The participles iūnctus and coniūnctus take the ablative of the thing joined with: as, dēfēnsiōne iūncta laudātiō, Br. 162, a eulogy combined with a defence. But sometimes the ablative with cum is used, or the dative (1186).

1358. (1.) Certain substantives without an attribute are put in the ablative alone to denote manner; but usually substantives without an attribute have cum.

1361. Other expressions denoting manner, particularly prepositional expressions with per, may be found in the dictionary: as, per dolum, 4, 13, 1, by deceit, per iocum, Agr. 2, 96, in fun, per litterās, Att. 5, 21, 13, by letter, in writing, per vim, RA. 32, violently, per praestigiās, V. 4, 53, by some hocus pocus or other, &c., &c. Sometimes the ablative with ex.

1362. (1.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate participle in agreement, is used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action.

1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus, by an explanatory word, such as etsī, tamen, nisi, quasi, quamquam, or quamvīs: as, etsī aliquō acceptō dētrīmentō, tamen summā exercitūs salvā, Caes. C. 1, 67, 5, though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a whole.

1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively or attributively: as,

1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to denote the route taken: as,

1377. The ablative is used to denote the instrument or means: as,

1384. ūsus est is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero, Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative: ūsust hominem astūtum, Pl. Ps. 385, there’s need of a sharp man.

1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken: as,

1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abounding, filling, and furnishing: as,

1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with plēnus: as, maxima quaeque domus servīs est plēna superbīs, J. 5, 66, a grand establishment is always full of stuck-up slaves. et ille quidem plēnus annīs abiīt, plēnus honōribus, Plin. Ep. 2, 1, 7, well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years and full of honours. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with dīves in poetry, and, from Livy on, in prose. With refertus, the ablative of things is common, while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With onustus, the ablative is generally used, rarely the genitive.

1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of measuring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price: as,

1392. The ablative is also used with dignus and indignus: as,

1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote the amount of difference.

1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words intervāllum and spatium are regularly put in the ablative: as, rēx VI mīlium passuum intervāllō ā Saburrā cōnsēderat, Caes. C. 2, 38, 3, the king had pitched six miles away from Saburra. So sometimes mīlle: as, mīlibus passuum VI a Caesaris castrīs sub monte cōnsēdit, 1, 48, 1. See 1152.

1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are used with prepositions.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, per is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, per tē de͡ōs ōrō, T. Andr. 538, I beg thee by the gods, in the gods’ name.

1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate prepositions with a substantive. These are called Inseparable Prepositions; they are: amb-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, por-, towards, rē̆d-, back. Usually also sēd-, apart (1417).

1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

1416. subter, under, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil, with the locative ablative: as, Rhoetēō subter lītore, Cat. 65, 7, beneath Rhoeteum’s strand.

1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

1421. The adverbs palam, in presence of, procul, apart from, either near or far, simul, with, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the ablative. coram occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero’s time. absque with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian; in Plautus and Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).

1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by the prepositions in, older endo, indu, into, in, sub, under, and super, over, on.

1425. (2.) super accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of dē, about, in reference to: as, hāc super rē scrībam ad tē Rēgiō, Att. 16, 6, 1, I’ll write you about this from Regium. In other senses, the accusative, but sometimes in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of on: as, ligna super focō largē repōnēns, H. 1, 9, 5, piling on hearth the faggots high. nocte super mediā, V. 9, 61, at dead of night. paulum silvae super hīs, H. S. 2, 6, 3, a bit of wood to crown the whole.

1426. (1.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition, to indicate certain attributive relations (1043); such are particularly:

1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively: as, sunt omnēs sine maculā, Pl. 6, 14, they are all without spot or blemish. And sometimes they are equivalent to adjectives: as, contrā nātūram, TD. 4, 11, unnatural, suprā hominem, DN. 2, 34, superhuman. Or to substantives: as, sine pondere, O. 1, 20, things without weight. Or to adverbs: as, sine labōre, Pl. R. 461, easily.

1429. (1.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or more substantives: as,

1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substantives: as, in labōre ac dolōre, TD. 5, 41, in toil and trouble. incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, N. 5, 3, 1, he fell under the selfsame ban as his father. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, cum duōbus ducibus, Pyrrhō et Hannibale, L. 28, with two commanders, Pyrrhus and Hannibal.

1431. (1.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substantive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun: as,

1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substantive: as, et in corpore et extrā, Fin. 2, 68, both in the body and outside.

1433. In general a preposition precedes its case: see 178.

1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to emphasize the negative idea: as, lapideō sunt corde multī, quōs nōn miseret nēminis, E. in Fest. p. 162, there’s many a man with heart of stone, that feels for nobody. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.

1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion: as,

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, stultior stultissumō, Pl. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest fool. ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima, Fam. 14, 3, 1, I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.

1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented as performing the action of the verb.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.

1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a passive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are: adeptus, commentus, complexus, cōnfessus, ēmentītus, expertus, meditātus, opīnātus, pactus, partītus, testātus, &c., &c.

1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another: thus, pereō, go to destruction, die, serves as the passive of perdō, destroy, and vēneō, go to sale, am sold, as the passive of vēndō, put for sale, sell. Similarly fīō, become, get to be, am made, is used in the present system as the passive of faciō, make (788).

1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented as acted upon.

1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, adultus, grown up. See 907, and also in the dictionary cautus, cōnsultus, concrētus, dēflāgrātus, incōnsīderātus, occāsus, nūpta.

1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are called Deponents.

1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, absolute declarations: as,

1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative with nē, and with nēve as a connective: as,

1533. A question is sometimes united with a participle, or an ablative absolute, or thrown into a subordinate sentence: as,

1498. Forms of possum are sometimes put in the subjunctive (1554). Thus, possim, &c., often (1556), also possem, &c., usually of present time (1560), less frequently of past time (1559), potuissem, &c., particularly in sentences of negative import (1561), rarely potuerim, &c. (1558). Sometimes also dēbērem, &c., of present time (1560), dēbuissem, &c., chiefly in apodosis.

1499. The indicative is the mood ordinarily used in enquiries and in exclamations: as,

1502. (1.) Yes or No questions are sometimes put without any interrogative particle: as,

1510. (4.) In Plautus, satin or satin ut, really, actually, sometimes becomes a mere interrogative or exclamatory particle: as, satin abiīt ille? Pl. MG. 481, has that man really gone his way?

1511. There are no two current Latin words corresponding exactly with yes and no in answers.

1514. immō introduces a sentence rectifying a mistake, implied doubt, or understatement in a question: as, nūllane habēs vitia? :: immō alia, et fortasse minōra, H. S. 1, 3, 20, have you no faults? :: I beg your pardon, other faults, and peradventure lesser ones. causa igitur nōn bona est? immō optima, Att. 9, 7, 4, isn’t the cause a good one then? good? yes, more than good, very good.

1515. The alternative question belongs properly under the head of the compound sentence. But as the interrogative particles employed in the single question are also used in the alternative question, the alternative question is most conveniently considered here.

1525. An alternative question is answered by repeating one member or some part of it, with such changes as the context may require.

1526. Pronoun questions or exclamations are introduced by interrogative pronouns, or words of pronoun origin.

1530. Two or more questions or exclamations are sometimes united with one and the same verb: as,

1531. A question in the indicative present or future may be used to intimate command or exhortation, deliberation, or appeal: as,

1534. The infinitive is principally used in subordination, and will be spoken of under that head. One use, however, of the present infinitive in main sentences, as a kind of substitute for a past indicative, requires mention here.

1539. It may be mentioned here, that the infinitive of intimation is sometimes used from Sallust on in relative clauses and with cum, when. Also by Tacitus in a temporal protasis with ubī̆, ut, dōnec, or postquam, co-ordinated with a present or imperfect indicative protasis: as,

1540. The subjunctive may be used to express a wish.

1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see 1731.

1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis with sī or ō sī: as, ō sī urnam argentī fōrs quae mihi mōnstret, H. S. 2, 6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.

1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.

1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity: as,

1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote willingness, assumption, or concession: as,

1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent action as conceivable, without asserting that it actually takes place.

1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see 1731.

1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.

1571. The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.

1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, iūre caesus estō, Twelve Tables in Macrob. Sat. 1, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances. probē factum estō, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified. at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.

1581. (1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with nē is used in old Latin, and with nēve as a connective, rarely neque: as,

1587. The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of sum expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

1593. The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,

1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,

1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite, I wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by the perfect scrīpsī. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English: as,

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1636. Two or more independent simple sentences may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in one of two ways: either without a connective, or with a connective.

1713. A subjunctive is now and then loosely coordinated with verbs in general, to indicate the purpose of the action: as,

1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are coordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is called Asyndetic Coordination or Asyndeton.

1642. Asyndeton is also common with parentheses. These often take the place of a modern foot-note: as, lēgātus capite vēlātō fīlō (lānae vēlāmen est) ‘audī, Iuppiter,’ inquit, L. 1, 32, 6, the envoy with his head covered with a ‘filum’ (that is to say a wrap of wool) says ‘bow down thine ear, Jupiter.’ Parentheses however are often introduced, from Terence on by nam, and from Sallust and Cicero on, by et, neque, autem, enim, &c.

1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

1692. In animated rhetorical discourse any word repeated with emphasis may serve as a copulative; this is called Anaphora: as,

1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect both the sentences and their meaning. They are et, -que, atque or ac, and, and neque or nec, neither.

1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by combination of asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives: as, rēgem Rhamsēn Libyā Aethiopiā Mēdīsque et Persīs et Bactriānō ac Scythā potītum, 2, 60, that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia and the Medes and Persians, and the Bactrian and Scythian.

1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but disconnect the meaning. They are aut, vel, sīve or seu, -ve, and an, or. Of these conjunctions, aut, vel, and

sīve

1675. (5.) The interrogative particle an sometimes becomes a disjunctive conjunction, or, or possibly, or perhaps: as, Simōnidēs an quis alius, Fin. 2, 104, Simonides or possibly somebody else. Common in Cicero, though not so in his speeches, and in Livy, commonest in Tacitus.

1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but contrast the meaning. They are autem, on the other hand, sed, vērum, cēterum, but, vērō, but, indeed, at, but, tamen, nihilō minus, nevertheless.

1686. (6.) tamen, nihilō minus, nevertheless.

1687. Instead of a conjunction, other words are often used as connectives: as, pars . . . pars, aliī . . . aliī; adverbs of order or time: as, prīmum, first, or prīmō, at first ... deinde . . . tum, &c.; and particularly adverbs in pairs: as, modo . . . modo, tum . . .

tum,

1693. A sentence coordinate in form with another sentence is often equivalent in meaning to a subordinate sentence. Such sentences are called Intermediate Coordinate Sentences.

1695. I. The relation of the two members may not be indicated by the mood, but left to be determined from the context.

1704. (9.) The coordinated member may represent the protasis of a comparative sentence with ut (1937): as,

1705. II. The subordinate idea is often indicated by the subjunctive of desire coordinated with another verb, usually with one which has a different subject.

1714. In a complex sentence, that is one consisting of a main and a subordinate sentence, the subordinate member is introduced by some subordinating word: such are,

2299. A passive with a verb meaning represent is expressed, for lack of a present passive participle, by the infinitive (2175). The infinitive active is rare.

1716. Subordinate sentences which express time or place, are called Temporal or Local sentences; comparison or manner, Comparative or Modal sentences; condition, cause, or concession, Conditional, Causal, or Concessive sentences; purpose, Final sentences; result, Consecutive sentences.

1717. In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses; the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses.

1718. Verbs which have an implication of futurity, such as those meaning can, ought, must, &c., with an infinitive, also subjunctives of wish (1540) or of exhortation (1547), may be called Virtual Futures.

1720. The indicative and the subjunctive are both used in subordinate sentences, as will be shown in the treatment of the several words of subordination. Some general uses may be mentioned collectively here.

1731. The subjunctive of wish, of action conceivable, or of interrogation, is sometimes used in a subordinate sentence exactly as in main sentences: as,

1721. The indicative is ordinarily used in sentences introduced by a relative pronoun, or by a causal conjunctive word other than cum.

1722. The subjunctive is used in relative, causal, temporal, and conditional sentences in indirect discourse, and in cases of attraction.

1729. The indicative is kept in subordinate statements added or vouched for by the person reporting, and also in circumlocutions equivalent to a substantive: as,

1730. The subjunctive is sometimes used in relative, temporal, or conditional sentences, to express action repeated or occurring at no particular time: as,

1732. I. The tense of a subordinate indicative often indicates a close relation of time with the tense of the leading verb, particularly in cases of repeated contemporaneous or antecedent action. The subordinate sentence in such combinations is said to have Relative time.

1772. (2.) Sentences with independent time retain the independent time in the subjunctive in primary sequence (1744); in secondary sequence the present becomes imperfect, and the perfect becomes pluperfect: as,

1739. With dum, in the time while, an independent present is used: see 1995. With postquam, &c., after, an independent perfect is used of a single action; see 1925.

1740. Subordinate subjunctive sentences were originally independent coordinate sentences, in the tense required to express the thought. By degrees the subordinate sentence blended closely with the main sentence, and the combination of the two was regarded as one whole.

1745. The use of subordinate subjunctive tenses relatively to the main tense, or what is commonly called the Sequence of Tenses, is as follows:

1746. (1.) The present, or perfect subjunctive, or the future participle with a form of sim, is used in sentences subordinate to a primary tense (1717): as,

1761. The subordinate subjunctive has sometimes the sequence of the nearest verb, instead of that of its proper verb: as, cūrāvit, quod semper in rē pūblicā tenendum est, nē plūrimum valeant plūrimī, RP. 2, 39, he arranged it so, a point which is always to be held fast in government, that the greatest number may not have the greatest power.

1762. When the leading verb is a subjunctive, the present is regarded as primary, and the imperfect and pluperfect as secondary: as,

1765. (2.) In subordinate sentences, the perfect subjunctive has the main sequence when it represents the indicative perfect definite, and the secondary when it represents the indicative historical perfect or the imperfect: as,

1766. (1.) A subjunctive subordinate to one of the nouns of the verb, except the perfect infinitive or the perfect participle, follows the sequence of the verb: as,

1769. The secondary sequence is used with meminī, remember, even when it has the present infinitive (2220): as, L. Metellum meminī ita bonīs esse vīribus extrēmō tempore aetātis, ut adulēscentiam nōn requīreret, CM. 30, I can remember Metellus’s being so good and strong in the very last part of his life that he did not feel the want of youth.

1770. Sentences with a subjunctive due to another subjunctive or to an infinitive are put as follows:

1773. The subjunctive is used in indirect questions or exclamations.

1791. Relative constructions often have the appearance of indirect questions, and care must be taken not to confound the two. Thus, ut is a relative in hanc rem, ut factast, ēloquar, Pl. Am. 1129, I’ll tell this thing as it occurred, i.e. not how it occurred. nōstī quae sequontur, TD. 4, 77, you know the things that follow, i.e. not what follows.

1774. The indirect question is one of the commonest of constructions. It depends on verbs or expressions meaning not only ask, but also tell, inform, ascertain, see, hear, know, consider, deliberate, doubt, wonder, fear, &c., &c.

1775. Indirect Yes or No questions are introduced by the same interrogative particles that are used in direct questions (1503). But in indirect questions, num and -ne are used without any essential difference, in the sense of whether, if. nōnne is used thus only by Cicero, and by him only with quaerō: as,

1777. A conditional protasis with sī, if, to see if, or sī forte, if perchance, sometimes takes the place of an indirect question in expressions or implications of trial, hope, or expectation: as, ībō, vīsam sī domīst, T. Hau. 170, I’ll go and see if he’s at home. Usually with the subjunctive: as, exspectābam, sī quid scrīberēs, Att. 16, 2. 4, I was waiting to see whether you would write anything. circumfunduntur hostēs, sī quem aditum reperīre possent, 6, 37, 4, the enemy came streaming round, to see if they could find any way of getting in.

1778. Indirect alternative questions are introduced like direct questions (1519). But when the second member is negative, it has oftener necne than an nōn: as,

1784. Two alternatives are rarely used without any interrogative particles at all: as, velit nōlit scīre difficile est, QFr. 3, 8, 4, will he nill he, it is hard to know, i.e. whether he will or not. Compare 1518.

1785. Indirect pronoun questions are introduced by the same pronominal words that are used in direct pronoun questions (1526): as,

1786. Questions already in the subjunctive may also become indirect.

1787. In old Latin, the indicative occurs often in connections where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as,

1792. Relative sentences are introduced by relative words, the most important of which is the pronoun quī, who, which, or that. The relative pronoun may be in any case required by the context, and may represent any of the three persons.

1837. A connective quod is often used before sī, nisi, or etsī, less frequently before quia, quoniam, utinam, quī, &c.

1801. The agreement of the relative has already been spoken of in a general way (1082-1098). For convenience, however, it may be set forth here more explicitly.

1811. When reference is made to the substance of a sentence, the neuter quod is used, or more commonly id quod, either usually in parenthesis: as,

1812. The relative is sometimes equivalent to a conditional protasis. When thus used, it may have either the indicative or the subjunctive, as the sense requires: as,

1830. The indicative, however, is used in quod attinet ad, as to, and usually with quantum, and with forms of sum and possum: as, quod sine molestiā tuā facere poteris, Att. 1, 5, 7, as far as you can without troubling yourself.

1817. (1.) Relative sentences of purpose are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by ut, in order that, to (1947): as,

1818. (2.) Relative sentences of characteristic or result are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by ut, so as to, so that (1947).

1823. The indicative, however, is not infrequently found in affirmative sentences, particularly in old Latin and in poetry: as, sunt quōs sciō esse

amīcōs,

1824. (3.) Relative sentences of cause, reason, proof, or of concession, are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by cum, since, though (1877): as,

1831. Sentences are said to be correlative, when a relative pronoun or adverb has a corresponding determinative or demonstrative pronoun or adverb in the main sentence.

1832. (1.) When two coordinate relative sentences would have the second relative in the same case as the first, the second relative is usually omitted: as,

1834. A sentence consisting of a main and a relative member, may be further modified by a more specific relative sentence: as,

1835. Besides the ordinary use of the relative, to introduce a subordinate sentence, it is often used like hīc, or is, or like et is, is autem, is enim, or is igitur, to append a fresh main sentence or period to the foregoing: as,

1838. The conjunctive particle quod, originally the neuter of the relative pronoun, has both a declarative sense, that, and a causal sense, because. In both senses it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is often used, and particularly in indirect discourse (1722).

2122. In old Latin, quasi is found a few times for the original quam sī after a comparative: as, mē nēmō magis respiciet, quasi abhinc ducentōs annōs fuerim mortuos, Pl. Tru. 340, nobody will pay any more attention to me than if I had been dead two centuries. It is also used (once in classical Latin, CM. 71) in periods of actual comparison, like tamquam (1908), with the indicative: as, senex ille illī dīxit, quasi ego nunc tibi dīcō, Pl. St. 545, that old man said to him, as I now say to you. For its use in figurative comparisons, see 1908, 1944. For tamquam introducing a reason &c., see 1909, a late usage found rarely with quasi and ut.

1855. An untenable reason is introduced in Plautus by nōn eō quia, in Terence by nōn eō quō; in Cicero very rarely by neque or non eō quō, usually by nōn quod or nōn quō; by nōn quia rarely in classical Latin, but commonly from Livy on. The valid reason follows, with sed quod, sed quia, or with sed and a fresh main sentence.

1856. quia, a neuter accusative plural of the relative stem (701) is used in both a declarative and a causal sense, like quod (1838). It is, however, more prevalent in Plautus, less so from Terence on.

1858. Causal quia, with or without a correlative, such as ideō, eō, proptereā, &c., is common in old Latin (1854) and poetry, unusual in prose (once in Caesar) before Tacitus. For nōn quia, &c., see 1855.

1859. quom or cum (157, 711), used as a relative conjunctive particle (1794), has a temporal meaning, when, which readily passes over to an explanatory or causal meaning, in that, since or although. In both meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin. In classical Latin, temporal cum in certain connections, and causal cum regularly, introduces the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also used with cum for special reasons, as in the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and commonly by late writers to express repeated past action (1730). cum, when, is often used as a synonym of sī, if, and may then introduce any form of a conditional protasis (2016, 2110).

1881. A protasis with cum is often followed by an emphatic apodosis introduced by tum.

1882. quoniam, compounded of quom and iam, when now, refers primarily to time, but is seldom so used and only by early writers. The temporal meaning passed early into an exclusively causal meaning, since. In both meanings it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725), or by attraction (1728).

1884. (2.) quoniam, since, seeing that, now that, with the indicative, introduces a reason, usually one known to the person addressed, or one generally known: as,

1885. The relative particle quotiēns (711), or quotiēnscumque, every time that, whenever, introduces the indicative: as,

1887. The subjunctive imperfect and pluperfect are common in the later writers to indicate repeated action (1730): as, quotiēns super tālī negōtiō cōnsultāret, ēditā domūs parte ac lībertī ūnīus cōnscientiā ūtēbātur, Ta. 6, 27, whenever he had recourse to astrologers, it was in the upper part of his house and with the cognizance of only a single freedman.

1888. quam, as or than, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as by attraction (1728), or of action conceivable (1731); see also 1896, 1897.

1898. When the main clause is an infinitive, quam is often followed by an infinitive: as,

1899.

(1.

1902. For quamquam appending a fresh main sentence, see 2153; for its use with the infinitive, 2317.

1903. quam vīs or quamvīs is used as an indefinite adverb (712), as much as you please, and is often joined with an adjective or other adverb to take the place of a superlative: as,

1907. It may be mentioned here that the indefinite adverb quamlibet, however you please, is used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission (1904) once or twice by Lucretius, Ovid, and Quintilian. Velleius has it with the participle, a construction sometimes found with quamvīs in late writers.

1908. tamquam, just as, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison.

1910. For tamquam instead of tamquam sī, see 2118; with a participle, 2121.

1911. antequam and priusquam accompany both the indicative and the subjunctive.

1922. It may be mentioned here that postrīdiē quam and prīdiē quam occur a few times in Plautus and Cicero with the indicative; postrīdiē quam with the indicative in Suetonius; and prīdiē quam with the subjunctive in Livy, Valerius Maximus, and Suetonius.

1923. With posteā quam, postquam (posquam), after, the following words may conveniently be treated: ubī̆, ut, when; ubī̆ prīmum, ut prīmum, cum prīmum, when first, and in Plautus quom extemplō; simul atque (or ac, less frequently et or ut, or simul alone), at the same time with, as soon as.

1934. ubī̆ or simul atque, referring to definite time, introduces the future or future perfect, when the apodosis is also future: as,

1935. The relative adverb utī or ut (711) is found in the oldest Latin in the form utei, but ut was the prevalent form even in the time of Plautus. As a conjunctive particle, it accompanies both the indicative and the subjunctive. For ut in wishes, see 1540; in questions, 1568.

1970. The subjunctive is used with ut or ut nōn to denote result.

1971. ubī̆, in the sense of where (709), has the ordinary construction of a relative (1812-1831). For ubī̆, when, see 1923-1926 and 1932-1934; as a synonym of sī, if, see 2110.

1972. quō, whereby, wherewith, or in old Latin sometimes quī (689), is the instrumental ablative from the relative and interrogative stem qui-. Combined with minus, the less, not, quō gives quōminus.

1976. In old Latin quī, whereby, wherewith, withal, is partly felt as a live relative pronoun in the ablative, and partly as a mere conjunction of purpose; as a pronoun it may even take a preposition; as a conjunction, it may refer to a plural antecedent (689): as, quasi patriciīs puerīs aut monērulae aut anitēs aut cōturnīcēs dantur, quīcum lūsitent: itidem mī haec upupa, quī mē dēlectem datast, Pl. Cap. 1002, as to the sons of gentlemen or daws or ducks or quails are given, wherewith to play; just so to me this crow is given, to entertain myself withal. enim mihi quidem aequomst dari vehicla quī vehar, Pl. Aul. 500, in sooth ‘t were fair that carriages be given me, to ride withal. The indicative occurs where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as, multa concurrunt simul, quī coniectūram hanc faciō, T. Andr. 511, a thousand things combine whereby I come to this conjecture.

1977. The subjunctive with quōminus (1972) is used to complete the sense of verbs of hindering or resisting.

1979. It may be mentioned here that quō sētius with the subjunctive, instead of quōminus, is found twice in Cicero’s earliest extant prose, and twice in older Latin.

1980. quīn is composed of quī, the ablative or locative of the interrogative and relative stem qui- (689), and -ne, not. It is used in simple sentences and as a conjunctive particle.

1990. quīn is used very rarely instead of quōminus to introduce clauses completing the sense of verbs which have no negative expressed or implied: as, once each in the Bellum Alexandrīnum, in Tacitus, and in Seneca’s prose.

1991. With the temporal particles dum, while, until, and dōnec, until (in old Latin dōnicum and in Lucretius dōnique), may be conveniently treated the relative quaad or quoad (that is quā or quō combined with ad), while, until, and the comparative quamdiū, as long as.

2009. Other constructions occur, chiefly in old Latin or poetry, with dōnec, or dōnicum, until. (a.) The future perfect: as, haud dēsinam, dōnec perfēcerō hōc, T. Ph. 419, I shall not stop till I have finished this. dēlīcta maiōrum luēs, dōnec templa refēceris, H. 3, 6, 1, for sins of sires thou shalt atone, till thou hast shrines repaired. (b.) The future: coquitō usque dōnec conmadēbit bene, Cato, RR. 156, 5, boil until it is very soft. ter centum rēgnābitur annōs, dōnec geminam partū dabit Īlia prōlem, V. 1, 272, for thrice a hundred years there will be kings, till Ilia gives birth to twins. (c.) The perfect indicative, less frequently the present, introductory to a general present: impedit piscīs usque adeō, dōnicum ēdūxit forās, Pl. Tru. 38, he always draws his net about the fish, until he’s brought them out (1613). usque mantant neque id faciunt, dōnicum parietēs ruont, Pl. Most. 116, they keep waiting and don’t do it until the walls are falling. (d.) The pluperfect indicative: horriferīs accībant vōcibus Orcum, dōnique eōs vītā prīvārant vermina saeva, Lucr. 5, 996, with horrid cries on Death they’d call till gripings sore had set them free from life. The imperfect indicative is found once in Tacitus, who also has the infinitive of intimation (1539) once or twice. An imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive sometimes occurs where purpose is intimated, and in Livy and late Latin to express repeated past action: as, dōnec ēgregius properāret exsul, H. 3, 5, 45, till he could hasten forth a peerless exile. trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant, dōnec quiētem ipse timor fēcisset, L. 21, 28, 11, the elephants always displayed some nervousness, till terror itself restored quiet (1730). But the habit of using the imperfect subjunctive is very common in Tacitus where neither purpose nor repetition is intimated: as neque proelium omīsit dōnec caderet, Ta. 3, 20, he ceased not fighting till he fell.

2010. quandō, originally a temporal particle, has the meaning when, which readily passes over to a causal meaning, since, because. In both meanings it introduces the indicative. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725) or of action conceivable (1731). quandō is also used to introduce a conditional protasis (2110).

2014. quandōque, inasmuch as, is used a few times in a formal or legal sense in Cicero and Livy: as, quandōque hīsce hominēs iniussū populī Rōmānī Quirītium foedus ictum īrī spopondērunt, L. 9, 10, 9, inasmuch as these persons have promised that a covenant should be made, without the order of the Roman nation of Quirites.

2015. sī, in early Latin sei, is originally a locative, meaning under those circumstances, so. With the enclitic -ce, it forms sīce or sīc, so. The two are sometimes found as correlatives in colloquial style: as, sīc scrībēs aliquid, sī vacābis, Att. 12, 38, 2, so you shall have time, so you will write something. See 708.

2115. For expressions of trial, hope, or expectation, followed by a conditional protasis with sī, see 1777.

2116. etsī, tametsī, though, etiamsī, even if, or sometimes simple sī, if, is used to introduce a concessive protasis. The verb of the protasis is either indicative or subjunctive; but the indicative is the prevailing construction, especially with etsī. The apodosis often has tamen as an adversative correlative, even with tametsī.

2117. sī following a word meaning than or as is used with the subjunctive in conditional comparisons.

2123. Separate sentences or periods have a connective more commonly in Latin than in English. Sometimes, however, like the members of single periods, they are for special reasons put asyndetically (1637).

2159. A new sentence affirmative of a foregoing is often introduced by an emphatic sīc or ita.

2124. Asyndeton is common with two or more separate sentences or periods:

2127. (c.) When the last sentence sums up the result of the preceding with emphasis: the Asyndeton of Summary: as,

2128. Separate sentences or periods may be connected: (1.) by pronominal words: (a.) demonstrative or determinative; (b.) relative; (2.) by conjunctions and adverbs.

2158. A conclusion is denoted by ergō, itaque or igitur, therefore, so, introducing a new period: as,

2160. The infinitive is in its origin a verbal substantive.

2236. (2.) A looser present infinitive is sometimes used with the above verbs, especially in old Latin, generally without a subject accusative. Thus with iūrō by Cato and Plautus, and with minor, proclaim with threats, by Lucretius. Similarly dare pollicentur, 6, 9, 7, they offer to give. reliquōs dēterrērī spērāns, Caes. C. 3, 8, 3, hoping that the rest were scared. spērō nostram amīcitiam nōn egēre testibus, Fam. 2, 2, I trust our friendship needs no witnesses. As possum has no future infinitive, the present of this verb is necessarily used: as, tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant, 1, 3, 8, they hope to be able to get the control of the whole of Gaul.

2163. The infinitive has furthermore two other properties of the verb: (a.) it is modified by an adverb, not by an adjective; and (b.) it is followed by the construction of its verb.

2164. The infinitive denotes purpose: (a.) when loosely added to a substantive in old Latin, (b.) with verbs of motion, eō, veniō, currō, mittō, in old or poetical Latin, and (c.) in the combination dō bibere, give to drink, in old, colloquial, or poetical Latin: as,

2165. In poetry, the infinitive of purpose is used with synonymes of dō also, and with verbs of leaving, taking away, taking up, &c.

2166. The infinitive is sometimes used with adjectives, chiefly by poets of the Augustan age, and late prose writers, often in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

2168. The present infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of certain kinds of verbs which imply another action of the same subject: as,

2171. A predicate noun used in the construction of the complementary infinitive, is put in the nominative: as,

2172. A very common form of a dependent sentence is that known as the Accusative with the Infinitive.

2206. In poetry, the infinitive is used as a substantive object with such verbs as dō, reddō, adimō, perdō: as, hīc verērī perdidit, Pl. B. 158, this youth has lost his sense of shame.

2207. The accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, present or perfect, may be used as the subject of a verb, in apposition with the subject, or as a predicate nominative: as,

2215. The infinitive, used as a substantive in the nominative or

accusative,

2216. The infinitive alone, or the accusative with the infinitive, is sometimes used in exclamations of surprise, incredulity, disapproval, or lamentation: as,

2218. The present infinitive represents action as going on, the perfect as completed, and the future as not yet begun, at the time of the action of the verb to which the infinitive is attached.

2219. In itself, the present infinitive denotes action merely as going on, without any reference to time. With some verbs, however, which look to the future, the present relates to action in the immediate future. With verbs of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying, it denotes action as going on at the time of the verb: as,

2222. The present infinitive dependent on a past tense of dēbeō, oportet, possum, often requires the English perfect infinitive in translation: as, quid enim facere poterāmus? Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? See, however, 1495. For the infinitive perfect, see 2230.

2223. (1.) The perfect active infinitive sometimes serves as a complement of dēbeō, volō, possum, &c. (2168): as,

2231. The perfect infinitive of completed action is very common with such expressions as satis est, satis habeō, iuvat, melius est, paenitet, &c., also with verbs of emotion, such as gaudeō, &c.: as, mē quoque iuvat ad fīnem bellī Pūnicī pervēnisse, L. 31, 1, 1, I am delighted myself to have reached the end of the Punic war. Oftentimes, however, in verse, the use of the perfect is partly due to the metre.

2232. The future infinitive is only used as a representative of the indicative, and not as a substantive.

2237. The gerundive is a verbal adjective (899). The gerund is a neuter verbal substantive, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. Both gerundives and gerunds express, in a noun form, the uncompleted action of the verb.

2268. With a comparative expression, the ablative of the gerundive is found once: nūllum officium referendā grātiā magis necessārium est, Off. 1, 47, no obligation is more binding than the returning of a favour. The gerundive construction in the ablative of separation (1302) is found rarely in Livy and Pliny the younger; Livy has also the gerund: as, Verminam absistere sequendō coēgit, L. 29, 33, 8, he forced Vermina to abandon his pursuit.

2242. Gerunds of verbs of transitive use are exceptionally found with a substantive object (2255, 2259, 2265), and regularly with neuter pronouns and neuter plural adjectives to avoid ambiguity (1106). See also 2247.

2243. The nominative of the gerundive construction, as the subject of sum, denotes action which is to be done.

2249. The attributive gerundive (2248), particularly with a negative, in- privative, or vix, may denote possibility, like the verbal in -bilis: as,

2250. (1.) The accusative of the gerundive construction is used with locō and condūcō, with suscipiō, habeō, and cūrō, and with verbs of giving or assigning.

2253. Other prepositions are sometimes used: as, inter, in old Latin, Vergil, Livy, and later writers; ob, once in Ennius, rarely in Cicero and Sallust; in very rarely, but even in Cicero; ante (Vergil, Livy), circā (post-Augustan), propter (Varro, Val. Max.), all rare.

2254. The dative of the gerundive construction is used with adjectives, verbs, and phrases of ability, attention, and adaptation, with titles of office, and with comitia, election.

2257. The dative of the gerund is used chiefly by old and late writers, and is confined in the best prose to a few special phrases.

2258. (1.) The genitive of the gerundive construction or gerund is used with substantives or adjectives.

2264. Tacitus has the genitive of the gerundive construction two or three times with a judicial verb (1280) to denote the charge: as, occupandae rē̆ī pūblicae arguī nōn poterant, Ta. 6, 10, they could not be charged with an attempt on the throne.

2265. In the ablative a transitive gerund with a substantive object is not uncommon.

2269. The supine is a verbal substantive. The form in -um is an accusative. The form in -ū is used sometimes as a dative, sometimes as an ablative.

2277. In Plautus and Cato, the supine in -ū is very rarely used like an ablative of separation (1302): as, nunc opsonātū redeō, Pl. Men. 288, I’m only just back from catering. prīmus cubitū surgat, postrēmus cubitum eat, Cato, RR. 5, 5, let him be first to get up from bed and last to go to bed. Statius imitates this use in Ach. 1, 119.

2270. The supine in -um denotes purpose with verbs of motion (1166): as,

2273. The supine in -um followed by īrī forms the future passive infinitive: as,

2274. The supine in -ū is used with fās, nefās, and adjectives, chiefly of such meaning as easy, good, pleasant, strange, or their opposites.

2278. The participle is a verbal adjective. Like the adjective, it is inflected to agree with its substantive. Like the verb, it may be modified by an adverb, it is active or passive, and it expresses action as continuing, completed, or future. It may also be followed by the same case as its verb.

2279. (1.) The time to which the participle refers is indicated by the verb of the sentence.

2281. For the perfect participle with forms of sum and fuī, see 1608, 1609; for the conative present participle, 2301; reflexive, 1482.

2282. The present or perfect participle is often used as an adjective to express a permanent condition: as,

2286. This use of the participle, though old, is not common before Livy, who, like Tacitus, has it frequently, both with substantives and with prepositions. Very rare in Caesar, rare in Cicero, who, however, uses it both with substantives and with a few prepositions. In old Latin (not in Terence), it is found with the substantives opus and ūsus, in Cato with post, in Varro with propter: as, mī homine conventōst opus, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see the man. propter mare congelātum, Varro, RR. 1, 2, 4, by reason of the freezing of the sea water. For the participle alone with ūsus est and opus est, see 1382.

2287. Participles sometimes become substantives, especially the perfect participle: as,

2292. The future participle is very rarely used as a substantive.

2293. The appositive participle is a loose substitute for a subordinate sentence introduced by a relative or by a conjunctive particle.

2296. The participle with a negative may be translated by without: as,

2297. habeō is sometimes used with certain perfect participles to express an action continuing in its consequences, faciō, dō, and in old Latin reddō and cūrō, with a perfect participle, are emphatic substitutes for the verb to which the participle belongs.

2300. In many cases where in English a verb like wish or try to have a thing done, can, must, or am allowed to, is used, the equivalent Latin verb is omitted. As this use generally extends through the entire system of the verb, examples of the nouns of the verb and of subordinate sentences thus used, are conveniently included here.

2745. (4.) Roman letters are used in the abbreviations of the names of authors, italics in the abbreviations of the names of their works, as in the following List:—

2307. A verb is sometimes used to denote permitted action. This is called the Permissive Use of the verb: as,

2301. A verb is sometimes used to denote action proposed, attempted, or begun, but not necessarily carried out. This is called the Conative Use of the verb: as,

2303. When the conative use is to be expressed more distinctly, a form of volō or cōnor is used, or a frequentative, like vēnditō, try to sell, adventō, strive to come.

2304. A verb is sometimes used to denote not what the subject actually does himself, but what he has another do. This is called the Causative Use of the verb: as,

2305. A verb is sometimes used to indicate action that can be done, and especially action that can be done at any time. This is called the Potential Use of the verb: as,

2306. A verb is sometimes used to denote obligatory action. This is called the Obligatory Use of the verb: as,

2308. The speech or thought of another, quoted in his own words, is called Direct Discourse (1723).

2334. futūrum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive is rarely used in apodoses of the passive voice (2331): as,

2311. The principles which govern the change of direct discourse into indirect discourse have been already set forth in the foregoing pages; but, for the convenience of the learner, they are here put together.

2312. Declarative sentences of direct discourse are put in the accusative with the infinitive, and interrogative and imperative sentences of direct discourse are put in the subjunctive, in indirect discourse.

2320. Sometimes a verb of saying or thinking is added, and is itself irrationally put in the subjunctive. For examples, see 1727.

2321. The tenses of the infinitive follow their usual law (2218), representing the action as present, past, or future, from the speaker’s point of view.

2324. The future of direct discourse is represented in indirect discourse by the imperfect, and the future perfect by the pluperfect subjunctive.

2325. ego and nōs, of direct discourse, are represented by sē in indirect discourse, and meus and noster by suus. tū and vōs, of direct discourse, are represented in indirect discourse by ille, or, when less emphatic, by is.

2326. The protasis of every kind (2023, 2024) has the verb in the subjunctive in indirect discourse (2315).

2335. For the use of the nominatives ego tū, nōs vōs, see 1029. The genitive plurals nostrū̆m and vestrū̆m are used as partitive, nostrī and vestrī as objective genitives: as,

2403. nēmō is generally used for nōn quisquam, nēmō umquam for numquam quisquam, nihil for nōn quicquam, and nūllus for nōn ūllus. If only two are spoken of, neuter is used. The plural neutrī is used of two parties.

2336. The reflexive regularly refers to the subject of the verb: as,

2343. The reflexive referring to the main subject is sometimes irregularly used in subordinate indicative clauses.

2344. The place of a reciprocal pronoun, each other, is supplied by inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē, or by alter or alius followed by another case of the same word: as,

2345. From Livy on, invicem inter sē, invicem sē, or invicem alone, is often used in the expression of reciprocal relations: as,

2346. The possessive of the personal and reflexive pronoun is regularly omitted, unless it is required for emphasis or contrast: as,

2347. hīc points out what is near the speaker in place, time, or thought: as,

2364. (3.) As a provisional subject, to anticipate the real subject, and keep the attention in suspense till the real subject comes with emphasis: as,

2365. is refers to something named in the context. When some feeling is to be expressed, such as admiration, or oftener contempt, homō is often put for is.

2370. is sometimes is loosely used for the reflexive sē (2341); here the point of view of the writer shows itself.

2371. īdem, the same, often connects two different predicates to the same person or thing. In this case, it may be variously rendered by likewise, also, all the same, on the other hand, at once, very, nevertheless.

2373. The same as is expressed by īdem followed by quī, atque or ac, ut, quasi, cum, sometimes in poetry by the dative.

2374. ipse, self, is used in contrasts.

2384. (6.) Of oneself, voluntarily, of one’s own motion.

2385. uter, whether? which? is used in questions about two things; quis and quī, who? what? in questions about more than two, though sometimes loosely of two things.

2386. quis and quid ask to have a thing named; quī and quod to have it described. But see 685.

2387. The relative pronoun has already been treated; see 1792-1837.

2388. quis or quī, a, some, somebody, always stands after one or more words of the sentence. quis or quī is used after sī (nisi, sīve), nē, num, utrum, an, quō, or quandō, in preference to aliquis, unless emphasis is intended.

2404. Numerals are divided into Adjectives: Cardinal, ūnus, one, duo, two, &c.; Ordinal, prīmus, first, secundus, second, &c.; Distributive, singulī, one each, bīnī, two each, &c.; and Numeral Adverbs: semel, once, bis, twice, &c.

2428. Sometimes fractions are expressed by addition: as, dīmidia et quarta, 3/4; pars tertia et septima, 10/21; sometimes by division of the denominator: as, dīmidia quīnta, 1/10.

2405.

2406. Numbers are noted by combinations of the characters I = 1; V = 5; X = 10; ↆ, later , , or L = 50; C = 100; D = 500; ↀ or , post-Augustan M = 1000.

2411. Of the two methods of writing the symbols for 4, 9, 14, 19, &c., the method by subtraction (IV, IX, XIV, XIX, &c.) is rarer, and is characteristic of private, not public inscriptions.

2412. quīnctus, the older form of quīntus (170, 4) is sometimes found in old and even in classical writers. Instead of septimus and decimus, the older septumus and decumus are not uncommon (28).

2418. In numbers from a hundred and one upwards, the larger number comes first, either with or without et; but with distributives et is not used. With cardinals and ordinals the smaller number sometimes comes first with et; as, iīs rēgiīs quadrāgintā annīs et ducentīs praeteritīs, RP. 2, 52, after these two hundred and forty years of monarchy were ended.

2419. Dates are expressed either by cardinals with a plural substantive or by ordinals with a singular substantive: as,

2422. Poets sometimes use the singular of distributives: as, centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and with a hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. duplicī nātūrā et corpore bīnō, Lucr. 5, 879, twynatured and of body twain. The plural is sometimes used in verse for the cardinal: centum bracchia . . . centēnāsque manūs, V. 10, 565, a hundred arms . . . and hundred hands.

2423. Other numerical adjectives are multiplicatives, ending in -plex; they are: simplex, onefold, simple, sēscuplex, one and a half fold, duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quīncuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex; and proportionals, used mostly in the neuter as substantives: duplus, twice as great, triplus, three times as great, quadruplus, septuplus, octuplus. Besides these there are other adjectives derived from numerals: as, prīmānus, soldier of the first: prīmārius, first rate: bīmus, twinter, two-year-old; &c., &c.

2424. One half may be expressed by dīmidium or dīmidia pars; other fractions with 1 as a numerator by ordinals, with or without pars: as, tertia pars or tertia, 1/3.

2429. The length of the vowel in some classes of syllables, as used in the classical period, may be conveniently fixed in the memory by the following rules. For the usage of older writers, see 126, 129, 132 and 2464-2472. For the general principles of length of vowels and syllables, see 33-41; 121-134; 177-178.

2739. Index of Horatian Odes and their Metres.

2472. Iambic shortening took place not only in verse, but also to a considerable extent in common speech, particularly in iambic words (see 130), in which the accent coöperated with the verse-ictus to produce the shortening.

2457. Final os has short o in the nominative of stems in -o-: as, servos, suos, Dēlos; also in compos, impos, and exos; and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. and Ac. epos; G. chlamydos, Erīnyos.

2458. For the general rule of position, see 177, 178; but, except in the thesis of a foot, a final syllable ending with a short vowel generally remains short before a word beginning with two consonants or a double consonant: as, molliă strāta, nemorōsă Zacȳnthos, lūcĕ smaragdī.

2459. A vowel which stands before two consonants, or a double consonant, belonging to the same word, so that its natural quantity cannot be determined from the scansion of the word, is said to possess Hidden Quantity.

2463. In the perfect indicative active, perfect participle passive and kindred formations of verbs in -gō preceded by a short vowel, as agō, regō, the theme syllable shows a long vowel: as, lēxī, rēxī, tēxī; āctus, lēctus; rēctor; āctitō.

2464. For the preservation of a long vowel in certain specific endings in old Latin, see 132.

2469. The first syllable of ille, illic (the pronoun), quippe, immō, inde, unde, nempe, omnis, and perhaps iste, is sometimes shortened.

2470. A long syllable, preceded by a short monosyllable or by a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the verse-ictus, may be shortened: as, ét hŭnc, dómŏ mē, ad ŭxṓrem, volŭntā́te.

2473. For hiatus within a word, and the means by which it is avoided, see 114-120.

2510. Synapheia (Greek συνάφεια, a joining together) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,

2480. Vergil sometimes admits hiatus when the final syllable ending in a vowel is preceded or followed (or both) by two short syllables: as, lāmentīs gemitūque et fēmĭnĕō ŭlŭlātū, V. 4, 667.

2481. For elision within a word, see 119.

2492. Elision rarely occurs in the first syllable or last syllable of a verse; but see under Synapheia (2510), and for the elision of the enclitic -que or -ve at the end of a dactylic hexameter, see 2568.

2493. Ecthlipsis (Gr. ἔκθλιψις, a squeezing out). Final m and a preceding short vowel are usually elided before a vowel or h: as,

2496. After a word ending with a vowel, -m, or -us, the verb est often loses its e: as, bonast, bonumst, bonust, vīsust. So, too, es sometimes loses its vowel: as homo’s,

adeptus’

2497. Semi-hiatus or Semi-elision. A long final vowel is sometimes shortened before a vowel. This may occur either in the arsis (2520), or in a resolved thesis: as, án quĭ amant (Verg.); léctulŏ ērudītulī (Cat.); nam quĭ́ aget (Ter.).

2498. Synaloepha (Greek συναλοιφή, a smearing together) is a general term used to denote the means of avoiding hiatus. It includes elision and synizesis, though some grammarians use it in the same sense as synizesis.

2499. Synizesis (Greek συνίζεσις, a settling together). Two vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) which belong to different syllables sometimes coalesce so as to form one syllable. This is called Synizesis, and is especially common in the early dramatists. Examples are: me͡o, e͡adem, cu͡ius, aure͡i. See 117.

2500. The term Synaeresis (Greek συναίρεσις, a taking together) is sometimes used as a synonym for Synizesis. The ancient grammarians, however, used it in the sense of Contraction (118).

2501. Dialysis (Greek διάλυσις, a breaking up). Conversely, two vowels which usually form a diphthong are sometimes separated so as to form two syllables: as coëpī (Lucr.) for coepī.

2502. The name Diaeresis (Greek διαίρεσις, a separating) is sometimes used as a synonym for Dialysis; but it is better to restrict it to the meaning defined in 2542.

2503. Hardening. A vocalic i or u is sometimes made consonantal before another vowel: as, abi͡ete, ari͡ete (Verg.); cōnsili͡um (Hor.); omni͡a (Lucr.). See 117 and 83.

2504. Softening. Conversely, a consonantal i or u sometimes becomes vocalized before a vowel, thus giving an additional syllable: as, silüae for silvae (Hor.); ēvolüisse for ēvolvisse (Ov.). See 52.

2505. Diastolé (Greek διαστολή, a drawing asunder). A syllable which in verse of the classical period is generally short is sometimes used as long for metrical convenience. The syllable so employed generally falls under the verse-ictus, and in most cases is immediately followed by the principal caesura, or by a pause in the sense. Examples are:

2506. The enclitic -que is sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another -que precedes or follows in the arsis: as, cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque (Accius).

2507. Systolé (Greek συστολή, a drawing together). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as, dedĕrunt (Hor.), nūllĭus (Hor.), imperat. commodă (Cat.).

2508. Syncopé (Greek συγκοπή, a cutting short). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as, surpite for surripite (Hor.), repostum for repositum (Verg.).

2509. Tmesis (Greek τμῆσις, a cutting) is the separation of the parts of a word: as, septem subiecta triōnī = septemtriōnī subiecta (Verg.).

2511. Rhythm (Gr. ῥυθμός, from ῥεῖν, to flow) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress or ictus recurring at fixed intervals.

2548. Although in all probability the Latin accent was mainly one of stress rather than of pitch, it seems to have been comparatively weak. Hence, when it conflicted with the metrical ictus, it could be the more easily disregarded. But accentual or semi-accentual poetry seems to have existed among the common people even in the Augustan age, and even in classical Latin verse in certain cases (as in the last part of the dactylic hexameter) conflict between ictus and accent was carefully avoided. After the third century A.D. the accent exerted a stronger and stronger influence upon versification, until in the Middle Ages the quantitative Latin verse was quite supplanted by the accentual.

2549. Some of the earliest remains of Latin literature are believed to show a rhythmical structure. These are chiefly prayers, imprecations, sacred songs and the like, couched in a set form of words. Of the rules according to which these carmina were composed, almost nothing is known. According to one theory, they are wholly accentual, and are composed of rhythmical series, each series containing four theses. Frequently an arsis is suppressed, and compensation for the omission is made by dwelling longer upon the thesis. As an example is given the prayer in Cato, Dē Rē Rūsticā, 141:

2550. The Saturnian is the best known and most important of the old Italian rhythms; but its nature long has been, and still is, matter of high dispute. There are two principal theories as to its character, the quantitative and the accentual, each of which is advocated by many distinguished scholars.

2554. The accentual theory was held by the scholiast on V. G. 2, 385, and in modern times has been upheld (in one form or another) by O. Keller, Thurneysen, Westphal, Gleditsch, Lindsay and others. The brief statement given above agrees essentially with that of O. Keller. Gleditsch holds that each half-verse has four accents, as: Dábunt málum Métellī́ ‖ Naéviṓ poḗtaé; Lindsay that the first hemistich has three accents and the second two, as: Dábunt málum Metéllī ‖ Naéviō poḗtae. The whole question is still far from its final settlement.

2555. These are descending rhythms belonging to the Equal Class (see 2527). In them the fundamental foot is the dactyl (–́ ⏑ ⏑), for which its metrical equivalent, the spondee (–́ –), is frequently substituted.

2580. These verses (2578, 2579) are often called Archilochian because they were first used by the Greek poet Archilochus.

2581. These are ascending rhythms (2528) in 3/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Iambus (⏑ –́), for which its metrical equivalent the tribrach ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑, the irrational spondee > –́, the irrational dactyl > ⏑́ ⏑, the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑ –́, or the proceleusmatic ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ is sometimes substituted.

2627. For other iambic verses and combinations of verses, see special editions of the dramatists.

2628. These are descending rhythms in 3/8 time. The fundamental foot is the trochee –́ ⏑, for which its metrical equivalent the tribrach

⏑́ ⏑ ⏑,

2649. The Trochaic Monometer Acatalectic is sometimes used by Plautus as a clausula (2536) to Cretic tetrameters., It consists of one complete trochaic dipody, e.g. nímis in|epta’ s, R. 681. iū́re in|iūstās, Am. 247. Terence uses the catalectic monometer twice (Eu. 292, Ph. 485) at the beginning of a scene, e.g. Dṓri|ō, Ph. 485. Plautus has a few other trochaic verses and combinations of verses, for which see special editions of his plays.

2650. Logaoedic verse consists of dactyls and trochees combined in the same metrical series. The dactyls are “cyclic” (see 2523), occupying approximately the time of trochees, and hence the verse moves in 3/8 time. Except in the “Lesser Alcaic” verse (2663), only one dactyl may stand in a single series; and a dactyl must not occupy the last place in a line.

2074. The indicative is sometimes used in the apodosis, especially in expressions of ability, duty, &c. (1495); nōn possum is regularly in the indicative when the protasis is also negative. For the future indicative the periphrastic form is sometimes used.

2675. Dactylo-Trochaic verse, like logaoedic, is composed of dactyls and trochees; but whereas in logaoedic verse the dactyls and trochees occur within the same metrical series, in dactylo-trochaic they always form separate series. Hence dactylo-trochaic verses are always composite, consisting of two or more series in combination.

2681. This verse occurs only in the Third Archilochian Strophe (2727) of Horace. The name Elegiambus is given to it as being the reverse of the Iambelegus (see 2679).

2682. In these the fundamental foot is the anapaest ⏑ ⏑ –́, for which its metrical equivalents the spondee —́, dactyl – ⏑́ ⏑ and proceleusmatic ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ are sometimes substituted.

2690. (2.) Other anapaestic verses sometimes occur, especially in the early comedy, but they are rare.

2691. These are rhythms of the Hemiolic class (2527), in 5/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Cretic (–́ ⏑ –̇).

2697. The Cretic trimeter acatalectic sometimes occurs, though rarely: e.g.

2698. These are rhythms of the Hemiolic class (2527), in 5/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Bacchīus (⏑ –́ –̇). Either (or both) of the two longs of a bacchīus is sometimes resolved. For the initial short syllable an irrational long is sometimes substituted. Occasionally two shorts are so substituted, especially in the first foot of a verse.

2706. (3.) Hypermetrical combination of bacchii into a system appears to occur in Varro, Sat. Men. fr. 405 Buech.

2707. In these, the fundamental foot is the choriambus (–́ ⏑ ⏑ –̇). True choriambic verse is very rare in Latin poetry, though apparent choriambi of the form –́ ⏖ | – or –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ are common in logaoedic verse (2652).

2708. In these, the fundamental foot is the Ionic, of which there are two forms, the Ionic ā māiōre –́ –̇ ⏑ ⏑, so called because it begins with the greater part (i.e. the thesis) of the foot, and the Ionic ā minōre ⏑ ⏑ –́ –̇, which receives its name from the fact that it begins with the less important part of the foot (i.e. the arsis).

2717. Horace (3, 12) employs a system of ten pure Ionics ā minōre, e.g.:—

2718. The following is a list of the Horatian lyric metres:—

2737. (XIX.) The Ionic System, a system of ten pure Ionics ā minōre (see 2717):—

2738. Catullus in 34 uses a strophe consisting of three Glyconics (2660) followed by a Pherecratean (2659):—

2740. In Part First, in which authors are occasionally cited, but without direct reference to their works, the usual abbreviations are employed: as Plaut., Ter., Cic., Verg., Hor., &c., &c.