автордың кітабын онлайн тегін оқу English grammar: 100 main rules
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УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-923
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Vasilyeva E. A.
As soon as you started learning English you have to study basic grammar rules that help understand the language structure and as a result communicate effectively.
In the reference guide 100 most common grammar rules are put together and explained in a clear form of tables with several examples to each rule.
Referring to this grammar guide may be helpful for those students who have recently started learning English and still find grammar not simple to understand as well as for those advanced users who need just refresh their knowledge of English grammar or clarify some grammar points.
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-923
© Vasilyeva Е. А., 2014
© Ltd. «Prospekt», 2014
RULE 1. Proper and Common Nouns
| Proper Nouns |
Common Nouns |
| — names James Paul McCartney, Agatha Christie — pen-names, nicknames Mark Twain, Merylin Monroe, Jack Sparrow, Billy the Kid Spot, Dolly — nationalities the Americans, the Dutch — celestial bodies Milky Way, Mars — water bodies Lake Baikal, the Nile — mountains Everest, the Himalayas — continents Africa, Europe — countries Russia, Great Britain — localities Liverpool, New York — streets Baker Street, Pall Mall — intracity objects and sights Hotel California, Big Ben — brands British Airways, Google — titles Animal Farm, Gone with the Wind |
— objects table, scissors — people baby, girl, man — creatures cat, snake — groups of people, animals family, jury, flock — substance sugar, water — material steel, cotton — facts, events birth, idea, rain — character, states, actions courage, nonsense, race, peace |
RULE 2. Countable and Uncountable Nouns
| Common Nouns |
|
| Countable Nouns |
Uncountable Nouns |
| singular form — a/an a man, a car, an orange — the the man, the car, the orange |
singular form — Ø water, joy, information — the the water, the joy, the information |
| Plural form — cardinal number five men, two cars, one hundred oranges — the the men, the cars, the oranges |
No Plural form |
| Note Uncountable nouns => Countable nouns 1. from abstract to specific light => a light sport => a sport time => a time 2. things made of certain materials cloth => a cloth iron => an iron paper => a paper 3. several uncountable nouns in plural form business => businesses cheese => cheeses tea => two teas |
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RULE 3. Plural Form Nouns
| Plural Form of Nouns |
||||
| noun => -s [s] [z] |
noun-s/-ss/-ch/-sh/-tch/-x/ => -es [ız] |
noun-o => -s [z] noun-o => -es [z] |
noun-y => -es [z] noun-y => -s [z] |
noun-f/fe => -es [z] noun-f => -s [z] |
| a club — clubs a bridge — bridges a rug — rugs a book — books a bottle — bottles a name — names a pen — pens a shape — shapes a star — stars a part — parts a bow — bows a sofa — sofas a kiwi — kiwis a menu — menus |
a bus — buses a class — classes a speech — speeches a dish — dishes a match — matches a box — boxes |
a vowel before -o => -s: a radio — radios a studio — studios a zoo — zoos a consonant before -o => -es: a hero — heroes an echo — echoes a motto — mottoes But: a casino — casinos a solo — solos a zero — zeros a tango — tangos a dynamo — dynamos a cello — cellos a piano — pianos a photo — photos -s /-es a flamingo — flamingoes / flamingos mango — mangoes / mangos |
a consonant before -у => -y into -i +-es: an army — armies a city — cities a country —countries But: Proper names Garry — Ganys Cindy — Cindys a vowel before -y =>-s: a day — days a key — keys a guy — guys |
a calf — calves a loaf — loaves a wife — wives a life — lives a roof— roofs a setf— serfs a chief — chiefs -s / -es a scarf — scarfs / scaryes a hoof — hoofs / hooves a wharf — wharfs / wharves -ff /-ffe =>-s: a cuff — cuffs a giraffe — giraffes |
| Plural — Only Nouns |
||
| two-parts things (take plural verbs) breeches fetters jeans pincers pliers scales scissors shorts spectacles tights tongs trousers |
disciplines, sports (take singular verbs) athletics billiards draughts economics gymnastics mathematics physics |
a whole consisting of many parts (take plural verbs) annals belongings clothes contents goods measles mumps news outskirts premises proceeds remains riches savings stairs surroundings thanks (take singular verbs) barracks crossroads customs gallows headquarters series species |
RULE 4. Irregular Plural Form of Nouns
| Irregular Plural Form of Nouns |
|||
| noun => -en an ox — oxen a child — children |
noun => noun a man — men a woman — women a tooth — teeth a foot — feet a goose — geese a mouse — mice a louse — lice a penny — pence a person — people |
noun => noun an aircraft — aircraft a headquarters — headquarters a means — means a deer — deer a fish — fish a cod — cod a salmon — salmon a trout — trout a sheep — sheep a swine — swine a fruit —fruit |
noun-um/-on =>-a noun-is => -es noun -us => -i addendum — addenda analysis — analyses bacillus — bacilli bacterium — bacteria basis — bases cactus — cacti corpus — corpora crisis — crises criterion — criteria curriculum — curricula datum — data diagnosis — diagnoses nucleus — nuclei oasis — oases phenomenon — phenomena terminus — termini thesis — theses |
RULE 5. Gender of Nouns
| Gender Nouns |
Neuter Nouns Common Nouns |
|
| Masculine he |
Feminine she |
|
| men, boys actor bachelor boy boyfriend brother cousin earl father fiance husband king lord nephew sir son uncle waiter male animals bull cock buck drake gander stallion ram |
women, girls actress maid girl girlfriend sister cousin countess mother fiancee, bride wife queen lady niece madam daughter aunt waitress female animals cow hen doe duck goose mare ewe |
inanimate things table room window both males and females adult applicant assistant candidate child domestic friend member participant passenger pensioner player relative servant student teacher worker collective nouns team group army police |
| Note 1. Refer to animals as "he" or "she" if their sex or name is known. Where is the dog? She is in the yard. 2. In certain cases inanimate things are given some masculine or feminine features and spoken of like gender nouns (personification). |
|
| Masculine gender "power" death summer the sun time the wind Look at the Sun. He is rising. |
Feminine gender "beauty and tendress" nature rainbow the moon the earth spring Look at the moon. She is beautiful. |
| 1. Traditionally, feminine pronoun she is used for ships, cars or countries. Titanic was the largest passenger steamship in the world when she set off on her maiden voyage. England is proud of her poets. 2. In cases of uncertainty the word "baby" is referred to as a neuter noun. The baby seems to be hungry. It is crying. |
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RULE 6. Common and Possessive Cases of Nouns
| Cases of Nouns |
||
| Singular |
Plurar |
|
| Common case |
man book |
men books |
| Possessive case |
man's book's |
men's books' |
| Common Case 1. Nouns in the common case don't have any special ending. a man, men, a book, books 2. Such nouns act in the sentence as — the subject The man opened the box. Books are usually sold in bookstores. — a direct object I know those women. Pass me the salt, please. — an indirect object The hostess showed the guests their room. He reads his students lectures twice a week. — a prepositional object Tom sent an e-mail to his colleague. The law was admitted by the parliament. — an attribute Andrew got a new can opener. We need to buy a travel map. I admire the works of Shakespeare. He was a great man of talent. — an adverbvial modifier Olivia travels by car. Cats shouldn't sit on the table. Possessive Case Possessive nouns express ownership. my parents' house his uncle's neighbours |
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| Possessive Case Formation |
|
| Singular Possessive noun's student's notes a child's toy noun-noun's a passer-by's ticket my mother-in-law's friends Singular Possessive with -s/-ss/-x noun' = noun's Dickens' novels = Dickens's novels the boss' car = the boss's car the fox' tail = the fox's tail |
Plural Possessive nouns' workers' demands the Smiths' house ladies' room old wives' tales noun and noun's Sam and Pam's cat Keats and Yeats' poetry Irregular Plural Possessive noun's children's clothing sportsmen's luggage People's Republic |
| Note The possessive case is a feature of certain series of nouns. — living beings his brother's name, a pet's hotel — social groups family's traditions, society's norms — trade marks Sony's approach, Microsoft's future — geographical names Africa's area, Russia's progress, London's parks, the ocean's coast, the Nile's water, the Everest's peak — world/country/city world's best films, our country's policy, the city's population — means of transport the ship's crew, the plane's engine, the bike's design — celestial objects the sun's rays, the planet's orbit, the moon's surface — time a year's cycle, this month's events, the week's news, today's level, a minute's silence — day parts this morning's newspaper, night's dew, an evening's entertainment — months, days of the week November's sky, Monday's results, Friday's show — holidays New Year's day,, Easter's date, April Fools' Day — money some dollars' worth, euro's declines — distance at a mile's distance, within a stone's cast — place at my sister's (house), at the doctor's (office), to the baker's (shop) — set phrases a pin's head a needle's eye for pity's sake to have/arrive at one's fingers' tips at arm's length |
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RULE 7. Syntactic Functions of Nouns
| Syntactic Functions of Nouns 1. Subject The team won the competition. Children need their parents. 2. Predicative Andrew is a businessman. An ordinary event turned to be a gorgeous festival. 3. Object Direct Object The cats drank the milk. Olivia has certain duties at work. Indirect Object The children gave their grandmother a present. The officer told his soldiers to attack. Prepositional Object I like to saunter through the town. Andrew brought flowers to his wife. 4. Attribute Prepositional Attribute He was appointed Head of Department. There is a cup of tea on the tray. Non-Prepositional Attribute Who knows the train timetable? A computer keyboard is one of the basic computer devices. Note |
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| noun + noun (nouns) a biology teacher (teachers), a love story (stories), a letter box (boxes) |
noun + noun (nouns) a clothes shop (shops), a sports event (events), a customs seal (seals), an accounts department (departments), arms production |
| 5. Adverbial Modifier They met in the park. He prefers a cup of coffee after dinner. |
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