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NEW LATIN GRAMMAR

CHARLES E. BENNETT

Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University

Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta

Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:

Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat.

—HORACE, Ars Poetica.

PREFACE.

The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.

C.E.B.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
May 4, 1918

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -īs, -īmus, -ītis are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive.

Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
October 16, 1907.

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.

The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands.

The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar.

In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
December 15, 1894.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introduction—The Latin language

PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The Alphabet

Classification of Sounds

Sounds of the Letters

Syllables

Quantity

Accent

Vowel Changes

Consonant Changes

Peculiarities of Orthography

PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER I.—Declension.

A. NOUNS.

Gender of Nouns

Number

Cases

The Five Declensions

First Declension

Second Declension

Third Declension

Fourth Declension

Fifth Declension

Defective Nouns

B. ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions

Adjectives of the Third Declension

Comparison of Adjectives

Formation and Comparison of Adverbs

Numerals

C. PRONOUNS.

Personal Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

The Intensive Pronoun

The Relative Pronoun

Interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

Verb Stems

The Four Conjugations

Conjugation of Sum

First Conjugation

Second Conjugation

Third Conjugation

Fourth Conjugation

Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation

Deponent Verbs

Semi-Deponents

Periphrastic Conjugation

Peculiarities of Conjugation

Formation of the Verb Stems

List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts

Irregular Verbs

Defective Verbs

Impersonal Verbs

PART III.

PARTICLES.

Adverbs

Prepositions

Interjections

PART IV.

WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

II. COMPOUNDS.

Examples of Compounds

PART V.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

Classification of Sentences

Form of Interrogative Sentences

Subject and Predicate

Simple and Compound Sentences

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

Subject

Predicate Nouns

Appositives

The Nominative

The Accusative

The Dative

The Genitive

The Ablative

The Locative

CHAPTER III.—Syntax of Adjectives.

Agreement of Adjectives

Adjectives used Substantively

Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs

Comparatives and Superlatives

Other Peculiarities

CHAPTER IV.—Syntax of Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Reciprocal Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER V.—Syntax of Verbs.

Agreement of Verbs

Voices

Tenses

— Of the Indicative

— Of the Subjunctive

— Of the Infinitive

Moods

— In Independent Sentences

— — Volitive Subjunctive

— — Optative Subjunctive

— — Potential Subjunctive

— — Imperative

— In Dependent Clauses

— — Clauses of Purpose

— — Clauses of Characteristic

— — Clauses of Result

— — Causal Clauses

— — Temporal Clauses

— — — Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc.

— — — Cum-Clauses

— — — Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam

— — — Introduced by Dum, Dōnec, Quoad

— — Substantive Clauses

— — — Developed from the Volitive

— — — Developed from the Optative

— — — Of Result

— — — After nōn dubito, etc.

— — — Introduced by Quod

— — — Indirect Questions

— — Conditional Sentences

— — Use of Sī, Nisi, Sīn

— — Conditional Clauses of Comparison

— — Concessive Clauses

— — Adversative Clauses with Quamvīs, Quamquam, etc.

— — Clauses of Wish and Proviso

— — Relative Clauses

— — Indirect Discourse

— — — Moods in Indirect Discourse

— — — Tenses in Indirect Discourse

— — — Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse

— — Implied Indirect Discourse

— — Subjunctive by Attraction

Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb

— Infinitive

— Participles

— Gerund

— Supine

CHAPTER VI.—Particles.

Coördinate Conjunctions

Adverbs

CHAPTER VII.—Word-Order and Sentence-Structure.

Word-Order

Sentence-Structure

CHAPTER VIII.—Hints on Latin Style.

Nouns

Adjectives

Pronouns

Verbs

The Cases

PART VI.

PROSODY.

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables

Verse-Structure

The Dactylic Hexameter

The Dactylic Pentameter

Iambic Measures

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. Roman Calendar

II. Roman Names

III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric

Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax

Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs

General Index

Footnotes

INTRODUCTION.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.—Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-European.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day.

d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.—Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.—The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature:

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong:

Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey; Tragedies).

Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).

Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies).

Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies).

Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).

Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires).

Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).

Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy).

Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).

Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works; Letters).

Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),

Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).

Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian).

Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics").

Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles).

Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).

Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet).

Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems).

Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:

[1] Sometimes also called Aryan or Indo-Germanic.

[2] Cuneiform means "wedge-shaped." The name applies to the form of the strokes of which the characters consist.

[3] The name Zend is often given to this.

Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse)

Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian).

Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War).

Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works).

Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History").

Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters").

Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams).

Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education).

Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian).

Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist).

Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars").

Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist).

Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass").

e. The Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.

f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are:

Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer).

Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer).

Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity).

Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet).

Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures).

Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father).

Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father—"City of God").

Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet).

Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet).

Boëthius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.—After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

THE ALPHABET.

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.

1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words—chiefly Greek.

2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.

2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.

3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,—

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal cords.

b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal cords.

c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house.

4. The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials,

Dentals (or Linguals),

Gutturals (or Palatals),

5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.

6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,—that of ng in sing,—the so-called n adulterīnum; as,—

anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.

8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.

9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3.

10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:—

OICELESS

OICED

SPIRATES

(Labials).

Mutes,

(Dentals).

(Gutturals).

Liquids,

Nasals,

(Labial).

Spirants,

(Dental).

(Guttural).

Semivowels,

a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1. Vowels.

as in

father

;

as in the first syllable

ahá

;

as in

they

;

as in

met

;

as in

machine

;

as in

pin

;

as in

note

;

as in

obey

melody

;

as in

rude

;

as in

put

;

like French

, German

2. Diphthongs.

aisle

;

oil

;

as in

rein

;

how

;

with its two elements,

and

, pronounced in rapid succession;

occurs almost exclusively in

cui

and

huic

. These words may be pronounced as though written

kwee

and

wheek

3. Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.

c is always pronounced as k.

t is always a plain t, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.

g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw, as in anguis, languidus.

j has the sound of y as in yet.

r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

s always voiceless as in sin; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.

v like w.

x always like ks; never like Eng. gz or z.

z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended.

The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c, t—so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice.

Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,—

1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.

2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.

3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re.

4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus.

5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tēx-ī.

QUANTITY.

5. A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:—

1. A vowel is long,[6]—

a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum.

b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum.

2. A vowel is short,—

a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn dum).

b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation.

1. A syllable is long,[7]—

a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus.

b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō.

2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.

3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.[8] Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.

NOTE.—These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rī) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.

6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, mō´rem.

2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amā´vī, amántis, míserum.

3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que, hominísque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque.

4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c.

5. In utră´que, each, and plēră´que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,—utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]

7.. 1. In Compounds,

a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,—

colligō

for

con-legō

b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,—

adigō

for

ad-agō

c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,—

expers

for

ex-pars

d) ae becomes ī; as,—

conquīrō

for

con-quaerō

e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,—

conclūdō

for

con-claudō

;

explōdō

for

ex-plaudō

2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,—

trēs

for

tre-es

;

cōpia

for

co-opia

;

mālō

for

ma(v)elō

;

cōgō

for

co-agō

;

amāstī

for

amā(v)istī

;

cōmō

for

co-emō

;

dēbeō

for

dē(h)abeō

;

jūnior

for

ju(v)enior

nīl

for

nihil

;

3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,—

vinculum for earlier vinclum.

So perīculum, saeculum.

4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,—

ārdor for āridor (compare āridus);

valdē for validē (compare validus).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,—

arbōs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis);

genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);

dirimō (for dis-emō).

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,—

pēnsum for pend-tum;

versum for vert-tum;

mīles for mīlet-s;

sessus for sedtus;

passus for pattus.

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,—

cor for cord;

lac for lact.

4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-); allātus (adl-); apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō (adf-); occurrō (obc-); suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-); collātus (coml-); etc.

5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:—

a) b before s or t becomes p; as,—

scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum).

b) g before s or t becomes c; as,—

āctus (āg-tus).

c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,—

eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9. Many words have variable orthography.

1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libīdō, etc.

2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula, epistola; adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,—

ad-gerō

aggerō

;

ad-serō

asserō

;

ad-liciō

alliciō

;

in-lātus

illātus

;

ad-rogāns

arrogāns

;

sub-moveō

summoveō

;

and many others.

3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc.

4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vīvont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.

PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

CHAPTER I.—Declension.

A. NOUNS.

12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Rōma, Rome; penna, feather; virtūs, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtūs.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns, mountain; pēs, foot; diēs, day; mēns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō, legion; comitātus, retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, steadfastness; paupertās, poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,—Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are—

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,—

nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,—

māter, mother; rēgīna, queen.

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:—

A. Gender determined by Signification.

1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Masculine; as,—

Sēquana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprīlis, April.

2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,—

quercus, oak; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,—

Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,—

nihil, nothing; nefās, wrong; amāre, to love.

NOTE.—Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.—Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, citizen; parēns, parent; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common.

NOTE 2.—Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, ānser, m., goose or gander. So vulpēs, f., fox; aquīla, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,—the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:—

Nominative

Case of Subject;

Genitive

Objective with

, or Possessive;

Dative

Objective with

for

;

Accusative

Case of Direct Object;

Vocative

Case of Address;

Ablative

Objective with

from

with

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-ending thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:—

ECLENSION

INAL

ETTER OF

TEM

. T

ERMINATION

First

-ae

Second

-ī

Third

Some consonant

-īs

Fourth

-ūs

Fifth

-ēī

-ĕī

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -ă.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

FIRST DECLENSION.

ā-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:—

Porta

gate

; stem,

portā-

SINGULAR.

ASES

EANINGS

ERMINATIONS

Nom.

port

a a gate

(as subject)

-ă

Gen.

port

of a gate

-ae

Dat.

port

ae to

for a gate

-ae

Acc.

port

am a gate

(as object)

-am

Voc.

port

O gate!

-ă

Abl.

port

with, by, from, in a gate

-ā

PLURAL.

Nom.

port

ae gates

(as subject)

-ae

Gen.

port

ārum

of gates

-ārum

Dat.

port

īs to

for gates

-īs

Acc.

port

ās gates

(as object)

-ās

Voc.

port

O gates!

-ae

Abl.

port

īs

with, by, from, in gates

-īs

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer; also, Hadria, Adriatic Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,—

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the combination pater familiās, father of a family; also in māter familiās, fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fīlius, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, freedwoman), equābus (mares), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus, freedman) and equīs (from equus, horse).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:—

Archiās

Archias

Epitomē

epitome

Comētēs

comet

Nom.

Archi

ās

epitom

comēt

ēs

Gen.

Archi

epitom

ēs

comēt

Dat.

Archi

epitom

comēt

Acc.

Archi

(or

-ān

)

epitom

ēn

comēt

ēn

Voc.

Archi

epitom

comēt

(or

-ă

)

Abl.

Archi

epitom

comēt

(or

-ā

)

1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; mūsica, music; rhētorica, rhetoric.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

SECOND DECLENSION.

ŏ-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:—

Hortus

garden

; stem,

hortŏ-

Bellum

war

; stem,

bellŏ-

SINGULAR.

ERMINATION

Nom.

hort

-us

bell

-um

Gen.

hort

-ī

bell

-ī

Dat.

hort

-ō

bell

-ō

Acc.

hort

-um

bell

-um

Voc.

hort

-e

bell

-um

Abl.

hort

-ō

bell

-ō

PLURAL.

Nom.

hort

-ī

bell

-a

Gen.

hort

ōrum

-ōrum

bell

ōrum

-ōrum

Dat.

hort

īs

-īs

bell

īs

-īs

Acc.

hort

ōs

-ōs

bell

-a

Voc.

hort

-ī

bell

-a

Abl.

hort

īs

-īs

bell

īs

-īs

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:—

Puer

boy

; stem,

puerŏ- Ager

field

; stem,

agrŏ- Vir

man

; stem,

virŏ-

SINGULAR.

ERMINATION

Nom.

puer

ager

vir

Wanting

Gen.

puer

agr

vir

-ī

Dat.

puer

agr

vir

-ō

Acc.

puer

agr

vir

-um

Voc.

puer

ager

vir

Wanting

Abl.

puer

agr

vir

-ō

PLURAL.

Nom.

puer

agr

vir

-ī

Gen.

puer

ōrum

agr

ōrum

vir

ōrum

-ōrum

Dat.

puer

īs

agr

īs

vir

īs

-īs

Acc.

puer

ōs

agr

ōs

vir

ōs

-ōs

Voc.

puer

agr

vir

-ī

Abl.

puer

īs

agr

īs

vir

īs

-īs

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Līber, Bacchus; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quus.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,—an earlier and a later,—as follows:—

Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero).

Servos

, m.,

slave

Aevom

, n.,

age

Equos

, m.,

horse

SINGULAR.

Nom.

servos

aevom

equos

Gen.

servī

aevī

equī

Dat.

servō

aevō

equō

Acc.

servom

aevom

equom

Voc.

serve

aevom

eque

Abl.

servō

aevō

equō

Later inflection (after Cicero).

SINGULAR.

Nom.

servus

aevum

equus

Gen.

servī

aevī

equī

Dat.

servō

aevō

equō

Act.

servum

aevum

equum

Voc.

serve

aevum

eque

Abl.

servō

aevō

equō

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iī); as,—

Nom.

ingenium

fīlius

Gen.

ingénī

fīlī

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); viz. fīlī, O son!

4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:—

Nom.

dī

(deī)

Gen.

deōrum

(deum)

Dat.

dīs

(deīs)

Acc.

deōs

Voc.

dī

(deī)

Abl.

dīs

(deīs)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,—

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, of talents; modium, of pecks; sēstertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, of the children; socium, of the allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:—

a) Names of towns, islands, trees—according to the general rule laid down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt.

b) Five special words,—

alvus, belly;

carbasus, flax;

colus, distaff;

humus, ground;

vannus, winnowing-fan.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,—

atomus, atom;

diphthongus, diphthong.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:—

[4] For 'voiceless,' 'surd,' 'hard,' or 'tenuis' are sometimes used.

[5] For 'voiced,' 'sonant,' 'soft,' or 'media' are sometimes used.

[6] In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them; as, ā, ī, ō, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels; as, ĕ, ŭ.

[7] To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.

[8] But if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long; as, abrumpō.

[9] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[10] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[11] The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The principles for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.

[12] The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root. Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are usually monosyllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffix. Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta.

pelagus, sea;

vīrus, poison;

vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:—

Barbitos

, m. and f.,

lyre. Androgeōs

, m.,

Androgeos. Īlion

, n.,

Troy.

Nom.

barbit

Androge

ōs

Īli

Gen.

barbit

Androge

-ī

Īli

Dat.

barbit

Androge

Īli

Acc.

barbit

Androge

-ōn

Īli

Voc.

barbit

Androge

ōs

Īli

Abl.

barbit

Androge

Īli

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dēlum, Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,—

Pure Consonant-Stems.

II.

ĭ-Stems.

III.

Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-Stems.

IV.

A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.

Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

A. Mute-Stems.

30. Mute-Stems may end,—

1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).

3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. Prīnceps, m., chief.

SINGULAR.

ERMINATION

Nom.

prīncep

-s

Gen.

prīncip

-is

Dat.

prīncip

-ī

Acc.

prīncip

-em

Voc.

prīncep

-s

Abl.

prīncip

-e

PLURAL.

Nom.

prīncip

ēs

-ēs

Gen.

prīncip

-um

Dat.

prīncip

ibus

-ibus

Acc.

prīncip

ēs

-ēs

Voc.

prīncip

ēs

-ēs

Abl.

prīncip

ibus

-ibus

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

Rēmex

, m.,

rower

Dux

, c.,

leader

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom.

rēme

rēmig

ēs

duc

ēs

Gen.

rēmig

duc

Dat.

rēmig

ibus

duc

ibus

Acc.

rēmig

ēs

duc

ēs

Voc.

rēme

rēmig

ēs

duc

ēs

Abl.

rēmig

ibus

duc

ibus

3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

Lapis

, m.,

stone

Mīles

, m.,

soldier

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom.

lapi

lapid

ēs

mīle

mīlit

ēs

Gen.

lapid

mīlit

Dat.

lapid

ibus

mīlit

ibus

Acc.

lapid

ēs

mīlit

ēs

Voc.

lapi

lapid

ēs

mīle

mīlit

ēs

Abl.

lapid

ibus

mīlit

ibus

B. Liquid Stems.

34. These end in -l or -r.

Vigil

, m.,

watchman

Victor

, m.,

conqueror

Aequor

, n.,

sea

SINGULAR.

Nom.

vigil

victor

aequor

Gen.

vigil

victōr

aequor

Dat.

vigil

victōr

aequor

Acc.

vigil

victōr

aequor

Voc.

vigil

victor

aequor

Abl.

vigil

victōr

aequor

PLURAL.

Nom.

vigil

ēs

victōr

ēs

aequor

Gen.

vigil

victōr

aequor

Dat.

vigil

ibus

victōr

ibus

aequor

ibus

Acc.

vigil

ēs

victōr

ēs

aequor

Voc.

vigil

ēs

victōr

ēs

aequor

Abl.

vigil

ibus

victōr

ibus

aequor

ibus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

C. Nasal Stems.

35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

Leō

, m.,

lion

Nōmen

, n.,

name

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom.

leō

leōn

ēs

nōmen

nōmin

Gen.

leōn

nōmin

Dat.

leōn

ibus

nōmin

ibus

Acc.

leōn

ēs

nōmen

nōmin

Voc.

leō

leōn

ēs

nōmen

nōmin

Abl.

leōn

ibus

nōmin

ibus

D. s-Stems.

36.

Mōs

, m.

custom

Genus

, n.,

race

Honor

, m.,

honor

SINGULAR.

Nom.

mōs

genus

honor

Gen.

mōr

gener

honōr

Dat.

mōr

gener

honōr

Acc.

mōr

genus

honōr

Voc.

mōs

genus

honor

Abl.

mōr

gener

honōr

PLURAL.

Nom.

mōr

ēs

gener

honōr

ēs

Gen.

mōr

gener

honōr

Dat.

mōr

ibus

gener

ibus

honōr

ibus

Acc.

mōr

ēs

gener

honōr

ēs

Voc.

mōr

ēs

gener

honōr

ēs

Abl.

mōr

ibus

gener

ibus

honōr

ibus

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. ĭ-Stems.

A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38.

Tussis

, f.,

cough

; stem,

tussi-

Īgnis

, m.,

fire

; stem,

īgni-

Hostis

, c.,

enemy

; stem,

hosti-

SINGULAR.

ERMINATION

Nom.

tuss

īgn

host

-is

Gen.

tuss

īgn

host

-is

Dat.

tuss

īgn

host

-ī

Acc.

tuss

īgn

host

em -im

-em

Voc.

tuss

īgn

host

-is

Abl.

tuss

īgn

host

e -ī

-e

PLURAL.

Nom.

tuss

ēs

īgn

ēs

host

ēs

-ēs

Gen.

tuss

ium

īgn

ium

host

ium

-ium

Dat.

tuss

ibus

īgn

ibus

host

ibus

-ibus

Acc.

tuss

īs

-ēs

īgn

īs

-ēs

host

īs

-ēs -īs

-ēs

Voc.

tuss

ēs

īgn

ēs

host

ēs

-ēs

Abl.

tuss

ibus

īgn

ibus

host

ibus

-ibus

1. To the same class belong—

apis

bee

crātis

hurdle

†*

secūris

axe

auris

ear

febris

fever

sēmentis

sowing

avis

bird

orbis

circle

†*

sitis

thirst

axis

axle

ovis

sheep

torris

brand

būris

plough-beam

pelvis

basin

†*

turris

tower

clāvis

key

puppis

stern

trudis

pole

collis

hill

restis

rope

vectis

lever

and many others.

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī.

2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, dog; juvenis, youth.[14]

3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dōs, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mēns, mind; ars, art; gēns, tribe; and some others.

B. Neuter ĭ-Stems.

39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

Sedile

seat

;

stem,

sedīli-

Animal

animal

;

stem,

animāli-

Calcar

spur

;

stem,

calcāri-

SINGULAR.

ERMINATION

Nom.

sedīl

animal

calcar

-e

or wanting

Gen.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-is

Dat.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-ī

Acc.

sedīl

animal

calcar

-e

or wanting

Voc.

sedīl

animal

calcar

-e

or wanting

Abl.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-ī

PLURAL.

Nom.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-ia

Gen.

sedīl

ium

animāl

ium

calcār

ium

-ium

Dat.

sedīl

ibus

animāl

ibus

calcār

ibus

-ibus

Acc.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-ia

Voc.

sedīl

animāl

calcār

-ia

Abl.

sedīl

ibus

animāl

ibus

calcār

ibus

-ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, Mt. Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of ĭ-Stems.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:—

Caedēs

, f.,

slaughter

;

stem,

caed-

Arx

, f.,

citadel

;

stem,

arc-

Linter

, f.,

skiff

;

stem,

lintr-

SINGULAR.

Nom.

caed

ēs

linter

Gen.

caed

arc

lintr

Dat.

caed

arc

lintr

Acc.

caed

arc

lintr

Voc.

caed

ēs

linter

Abl.

caed

arc

lintr

PLURAL.

Nom.

caed

ēs

arc

ēs

lintr

ēs

Gen.

caed

ium

arc

ium

lintr

ium

Dat.

caed

ibus

arc

ibus

lintr

ibus

Acc.

caed

ēs

-īs

arc

ēs

-īs

lintr

ēs

-īs

Voc.

caed

ēs

arc

ēs

lintr

ēs

Abl.

caed

ibus

arc

ibus

lintr

ibus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:—

a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors.

d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs, penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās. Cīvitās usually has cīvitātium.

IV. Stems in -ī, -ū, and Diphthongs.

41.

Vis

, f.,

force

;

stem,

vī-

Sūs

, c.,

swine

;

stem,

sū-

Bōs

, c.,

cow

;

stem,

bou-

Juppiter

, m.,

Jupiter

;

stem,

Jou-

SINGULAR.

Nom.

vī

sū

bō

Juppiter

Gen.

——

bov

Jov

Dat.

——

bov

Jov

Acc.

bov

Jov

Voc.

vī

sū

bō

Juppiter

Abl.

bov

Jov

PLURAL.

Nom.

vīr

ēs

bov

ēs

Gen.

vīr

ium

bov

, bo

Dat.

vīr

ibus

, su

bus

bō

bus

, bū

bus

Acc.

vīr

ēs

bov

ēs

Voc.

vīr

ēs

bov

ēs

Abl.

vīr

ibus

, su

bus

bō

bus

, bū

bus

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.

2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.

Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42.

Senex

, m.,

old man

Carō

, f.,

flesh

, n.,

bone

SINGULAR.

Nom.

sen

carō

Gen.

sen

carn

oss

Dat.

sen

carn

oss

Acc.

sen

carn

Voc.

sen

carō

Abl.

sen

carn

oss

PLURAL.

Nom.

sen

ēs

carn

ēs

oss

Gen.

sen

carn

ium

oss

ium

Dat.

sen

ibus

carn

ibus

oss

ibus

Acc.

sen

ēs

carn

ēs

oss

Voc.

sen

ēs

carn

ēs

oss

Abl.

sen

ibus

carn

ibus

oss

ibus

1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and -e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,—jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine.

2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or -ūdis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -ō.

a. Feminine: carō, flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -ōs.

a. Feminine: dōs, dowry.

b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), mouth.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, skiff.

b. Neuter: cadāver, corpse; iter, way; tūber, tumor; ūber, udder. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, maple.

5. Nouns in -ĕs.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -ās.

a. Masculine: vās, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vās, vessel.

2. Nouns in -ēs.

a. Masculine: ariēs, ram; pariēs, wall; pēs, foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river; īgnis, fire; pānis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.

Also—

axis

axle

collis

hill

fascis

bundle

lapis

stone

mēnsis

month

piscis

fish

postis

post

pulvis

dust

orbis

circle

sentis

brier

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex, peak; cōdex, tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex, tile; pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dēns, tooth; fōns, fountain; mōns, mountain; pōns, bridge.

6. Nouns in -dō.

a. Masculine: cardō, hinge; ōrdō, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sōl, sun; sāl, salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -ŭs.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:—

1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, aether; Salamīnă, Salamis.

2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, Phrygians.

3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, Phrygians.

4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, Atlas.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, poems.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.

7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.

8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,—

Nom.

Didō

Acc.

Didō

Gen.

Didūs

Voc.

Didō

Dat.

Didō

Abl.

Didō

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

ŭ-Stems.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as follows:—

Frūctus

, m.,

fruit

Cornū

, n.,

horn

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom.

frūct

ūs

corn

Gen.

frūct

ūs

frūct

uum

corn

ūs

corn

uum

Dat.

frūct

uī

frūct

ibus

corn

ibus

Acc.

frūct

ūs

corn

Voc.

frūct

ūs

corn

Abl.

frūct

ibus

corn

ibus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for frūctuī).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:—

[13] There is only one stem ending in -m:—hiems, hiemīs, winter.

[14] Mēnsis, month, originally a consonant stem (mēns-), has in the Genitive Plural both mēnsium and mēnsum. The Accusative Plural is mēnsēs.

domī (locative), at home;

domō, from home;

domum, homewards, to one's home;

domōs, homewards, to their (etc.) homes

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, horn; genū, knee; and verū, spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Īdūs (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).

FIFTH DECLENSION.

ē-Stems.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:—

Diēs

, m.,

day

Rēs

, f.,

thing

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom.

ēs

Gen.

ēī

ērum

ĕī

ērum

Dat.

ēī

ēbus

ĕī

ēbus

Acc.

ēs

Voc.

ēs

Abl.

ēbus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī.

2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, tribune of the people, and plēbī scītum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē.

4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, mid-day. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54. Here belong—

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:—

1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, Cicero; Italia, Italy.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, ignorance; bonitās, goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:—

a) Proper names,—to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, the Ciceros; Catōnēs, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,—to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, woods.

c) Abstract nouns,—to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae, cases of ignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56. Here belong—

1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompejī, Pompeii.

2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, the Megalesian festival.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:—

angustiae

narrow pass

arma

weapons

dēliciae

delight

dīvitiae

riches

Īdūs

Ides

indūtiae

truce

īnsidiae

ambush

majōrēs

ancestors

mānēs

spirits of the dead

moenia

city walls

minae

threats

nūptiae

marriage

posterī

descendants

reliquiae

remainder

tenebrae

darkness

verbera

blows

Also in classical prose regularly—

cervīcēs

neck

fidēs

lyre

nārēs

nose

vīscerā

viscera

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, by the order; injussū, without the order; nātū, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (chance), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.

a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,—all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong—

fās

, n.,

right

īnstar

, n.,

likeness

māne

, n.,

morning

nefās

, n.,

impiety

nihil

, n.,

nothing

secus

, n.,

sex

1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:—

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,—

vās

vāsis

(

vessel

);

Plu.,

vāsa

vāsorōum

vāsīs

etc. jūgerum

jūgerī

(

acre

);

Plu.,

jūgera

jūgerum

jūgeribus

etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:—

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, material, as well as māteria, māteriam.

b) Famēs, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē of the Fifth.

c) Requiēs, requiētis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem.

d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:—

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,—one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,—

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

balneum

, n.,

bath

;

balneae

, f.,

bath-house

epulum

, n.,

feast

;

epulae

, f.,

feast

frēnum

, n.,

bridle

;

frēnī

, m.(rarely

frēna

, n.),

bridle

jocus

, m.,

jest

;

joca

, n. (also

jocī

, m.),

jests

locus

, m.,

place

;

loca

, n.,

places

;

locī

, m.,

passages or topics in an author

rāstrum

, n.,

rake

;

rāstrī

, m.;

rāstra

, n.,

rakes

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:—

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

aedēs

temple

;

aedēs

house

auxilium

help

;

auxilia

auxiliary troops

carcer

prison

;

carcerēs

stalls for racing-chariot

castrum

fort

;

castra

camp

cōpia

abundance

;

cōpiae

troops

resources

fīnis

end

;

fīnēs

borders

territory

fortūna

fortune

;

fortūnae

possessions

wealth

grātia

favor

gratitude

;

grātiae

thanks

impedīmentum

hindrance

;

impedīmenta

baggage

littera

letter

(of the alphabet);

litterae

epistle; literature

mōs

habit

custom

;

mōrēs

character

opera

help

service

;

operae

laborers

(

ops

)

opis

help

;

opēs

resources

pars

part

;

partēs

party

;

rôle

sāl

salt

;

sălēs

wit

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,—

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:—

Bonus

good

SINGULAR.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

bon

Gen.

bon

Dat.

bon

Acc.

bon

Voc.

bon

Abl.

bon

PLURAL.

Nom.

bon

Gen.

bon

ōrum

bon

ārum

bon

ōrum

Dat.

bon

īs

bon

īs

bon

īs

Acc.

bon

ōs

bon

ās

bon

Voc.

bon

Abl.

bon

īs

bon

īs

bon

īs

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum.

64. Masculine like puer:—

Tener

tender

SINGULAR.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

tener

Gen.

tener

Dat.

tener

Acc.

tener

Voc.

tener

Abl.

tener

PLURAL.

Nom.

tener

Gen.

tener

ōrum

tener

ārum

tener

ōrum

Dat.

tener

īs

tener

īs

tener

īs

Acc.

tener

ōs

tener

ās

tener

Voc.

tener

Abl.

tener

īs

tener

īs

tener

īs

65. Masculine like ager:—

Sacer

sacred

SINGULAR.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

sacer

sacr

Gen.

sacr

Dat.

sacr

Acc.

sacr

Voc.

sacer

sacr

Abl.

sacr

PLURAL.

Nom.

sacr

Gen.

sacr

ōrum

sacr

ārum

sacr

ōrum

Dat.

sacr

īs

sacr

īs

sacr

īs

Acc.

sacr

ōs

sacr

ās

sacr

Voc.

sacr

Abl.

sacr

īs

sacr

īs

sacr

īs

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torn; līber, free; miser, wretched; prōsper, prosperous; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur, full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong—

alius

another

;

alter

the other

;

ūllus

any

;

nūllus

none

;

uter

which?

(of two);

neuter

neither

;

sōlus

alone

;

tōtus

whole

;

ūnus

one

alone

They are declined as follows:—

SINGULAR.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

ali

alter

Gen.

alter

ĭus

alter

ĭus

alter

ĭus[15]

alter

ĭus

alter

ĭus

alter

ĭus

Dat.

ali

alter

ī[16]

alter

Acc.

ali

alter

Voc.

——

Abl.

ali

alter

Nom.

uter

utr

tōt

Gen.

utr

īus

utr

īus

utr

īus

tōt

īus

tōt

īus

tōt

īus

Dat.

utr

tōt

Acc.

utr

tōt

Voc.

——

Abl.

utr

tōt

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,—

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,—one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:—

Ācer

sharp

SINGULAR.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

ācer

ācr

Gen.

ācr

Dat.

ācr

Acc.

ācr

Voc.

ācer

ācr

Abl.

ācr

PLURAL.

Nom.

ācr

ēs

ācr

ēs

ācr

Gen.

ācr

ium

ācr

ium

ācr

ium Dat

ācr

ibus

ācr

ibus

ācr

ibus

Acc.

ācr

ēs

-īs

ācr

ēs

-īs

ācr

Voc.

ācr

ēs

ācr

ēs

ācr

Abl.

ācr

ibus

ācr

ibus

ācr

ibus

1. Like ācer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; equester, equestrian; palūster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; salūber, wholesome; silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:—

Fortis

strong. Fortior

stronger.

SINGULAR.

AND

EUT

AND

EUT

Nom.

fort

fortior

fortius

Gen.

fort

fortiōr

Dat.

fort

fortiōr

Acc.

fort

fortiōr

fortius

Voc.

fort

fortior

fortius

Abl.

fort

fortiōr

PLURAL.

Nom.

fort

ēs

fort

fortiōr

ēs

fortiōr

Gen.

fort

ium

fort

ium

fortiōr

Dat.

fort

ibus

fort

ibus

fortiōr

ibus

fortiōr

ibus

Acc.

fort

ēs

-īs

fort

fortiōr

ēs

-īs

fortiōr

Voc.

fort

ēs

fort

fortiōr

ēs

fortiōr

Abl.

fort

ibus

fort

ibus

fortiōr

ibus

fortiōr

ibus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70.

Fēlīx

happy.

Prūdēns

prudent.

SINGULAR.

AND

EUT

AND

EUT

Nom.

fēlī

prūdēn

Gen.

fēlīc

īs

fēlīc

prūdent

Dat.

fēlīc

prūdent

Acc.

fēlīc

fēlī

prūdent

prūdēn

Voc.

fēlī

prūdēn

Abl.

fēlīc

prūdent

PLURAL.

Nom.

fēlīc

ēs

fēlīc

prūdent

ēs

prūdent

Gen.

fēlīc

ium

fēlīc

ium

prūdent

ium

prūdent

ium

Dat.

fēlīc

ibus

fēlīc

ibus

prūdent

ibus

prūdent

ibus

Acc.

fēlīc

ēs

-īs

fēlīc

prūdent

ēs

-īs

prūdent

Voc.

fēlīc

ēs

fēlīc

prūdent

ēs

prūdent

Abl.

fēlīc

ibus

fēlīc

ibus

prūdent

ibus

prūdent

ibus Vetus

old

Plūs

more

SINGULAR.

AND

EUT

AND

EUT

Nom.

vetus

——

plūs

Gen.

veter

——

plūr

Dat.

veter

——

Acc.

veter

vetus

——

plūs

Voc.

vetus

——

Abl.

veter

——

plūr

PLURAL.

Nom.

veter

ēs

veter

plūr

ēs

plūr

Gen.

veter

plūr

ium

plūr

ium

Dat.

veter

ibus

veter

ibus

plūr

ibus

plūr

ibus

Acc.

veter

ēs

veter

plūr

ēs

-īs

plūr

Voc.

veter

ēs

veter

——

Abl.

veter

ibus

veter

ibus

plūr

ibus

plūr

ibus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dīves, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; prīnceps, chief; sōspes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,—

[15] This is practically always used instead of alīus in the Genitive.

[16] A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs.

ā sapientī virō, by a wise man; but

ā sapiente, by a philosopher.

Tarquiniō rēgnante, under the reign of Tarquin.

4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,—

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,—

aequālis, contemporary, Abl. aequālī.

cōnsulāris, ex-consul, Abl. cōnsulārī

So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, April; Decembrī, December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī, frugal; nēquam, worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,—the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,—

altus,

high

alt

ior

higher

alt

issimus

highest

very high

fortis,

brave

fort

ior

fort

issimus

fēlīx,

fortunate

fēlīc

ior

fēlīc

issimus

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,—

doctus,

learned

doct

ior

doct

issimus

egēns,

needy

egent

ior

egent

issimus

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

asper,

rough

asper

ior

asper

rimus

pulcher,

beautiful

pulchr

ior

pulcher

rimus

ācer,

sharp

ācr

ior

ācer

rimus

celer,

swift

celer

ior

celer

rimus

a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:—

facilis,

easy

facil

ior

facil

limus

difficilis,

diffcult

difficil

ior

difficil

limus

similis,

like

simil

ior

simil

limus

dissimilis,

unlike

dissimil

ior

dissimil

limus

humilis,

low

humil

ior

humil

limus

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:—

maledicus,

slanderous

maledīcent

ior

maledīcent

issimus

magnificus,

magnificent

magnificent

ior

magnificent

issimus

benevolus,

kindly

benevolent

ior

benevolent

issimus

a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns, benevolēns.

6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or dītissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.—

bonus,

good

mel

ior

opt

imus

malus,

bad

jor

pess

imus

parvus,

small

min

imus

magnus,

large

jor

max

imus

multus,

much

plūs,

plūr

imus

frūgī,

thrifty

frūgāl

ior

frūgāl

issimus

nēquam,

worthless

nēqu

ior

nēqu

issimus

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,—

(Cf.

prae

in front of

ior

former

īmus

first

(Cf.

citrā

this side of

citer

ior

on this side

cit

imus

near

(Cf.

ultrā

beyond

ulter

ior

farther

ult

imus

farthest

(Cf.

intrā

within

inter

ior

inner

int

imus

inmost

(Cf.

prope

near

prop

ior

nearer

prox

imus

nearest

(Cf.

dē

down

dēter

ior

inferior

dēter

rimus

worst

(Cf. archaic

potis

possible

pot

ior

preferable

pot

issimus

chiefest

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,—

posterō diē, annō,

etc. the following day

etc.

posterī,

descendants

poster

ior

later

postr

ēmus

latest

last

post

umus

late-born

posthumous

exteri,

foreigners

nātiōnēs exterae,

foreign nations

exter

ior

outer

extr

ēmus

, ext

imus

outermost

inferī,

gods of the lower world

Mare Inferum,

Mediterranean Sea

īnfer

ior

lower

īnf

imus

, ī

mus

lowest

superī,

gods above

Mare Superum,

Adriatic Sea

super

ior

higher

supr

ēmus

last

sum

mus

highest

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus,

old

——

[17]

veter

rimus

fīdus,

faithful

——

fīdis

simus

novus,

new

——

[18]

novis

simus

[19] last

sacer,

sacred

——

sacer

rimus

falsus,

false

——

fals

issimus

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer,

lively

alacr

ior

——

ingēns,

great

ingent

ior

——

salūtāris,

wholesome

salūtār

ior

——

juvenis,

young

jūn

ior

——

[20]

senex,

old

sen

ior

——

[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis, -ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by Magis and Maximē.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maximē (most). Here belong—

1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessārius, necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong—

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, of to-day; annuus, annual; mortālis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,—

cārus,

cār

dearly

;

pulcher,

pulchr

beautifully

;

ācer,

ācr

iter

fiercely

;

levis,

lev

iter

lightly

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,—

sapiēns,

sapient

wisely

;

sollers,

sollert

skillfully

Note audāx, audācter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus—

(cārus)

cār

dearly

cār

ius

cār

issimē

(pulcher)

pulchr

beautifully

pulchr

ius

pulcher

rimē

(ācer)

ācr

iter

fiercely

ācr

ius

ācer

rimē

(levis)

lev

iter

lightly

lev

ius

lev

issimē

(sapiēns)

sapien

ter

wisely

sapient

ius

sapient

issimē

(audāx)

audāc

ter

boldly

audāc

ius

audāc

issimē

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1.

benĕ,

well

mel

ius

opt

imē

malĕ,

ill

jus

pess

imē

magnopere,

greatly

mag

max

imē

multum,

much

plūs,

plūr

imum

nōn multum,

little

parum,

min

imē

diū,

long

diūt

ius

diūt

issimē

nēquiter,

worthlessly

nēqu

ius

nēqu

issimē

saepe,

often

saep

ius

saep

issimē

mātūrē,

betimes

mātūr

ius

mātūr

rimē

mātūr

issimē

prope,

near

prop

ius

pro

ximē

nūper,

recently

——

nūper

rimē

——

pot

ius

rather

pot

issimum

especially

——

priu

previously

before

prī

mum

first

secus,

otherwise

sēt

ius

less

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,—

crēbrō

frequently

;

falsō

falsely

;

continuō

immediately

;

subitō

suddenly

;

rārō

rarely

, and a few others.

a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,—

multum

much

;

paulum

little

;

facile

easily

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,—

fīrmus

fīrmiter

firmly

;

hūmānus

hūmāniter

humanly

;

largus

largiter

copiously

;

alius

aliter

otherwise

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, anciently; paulātim, gradually.

NUMERALS.

78. Numerals may be divided into—

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising—

a. Cardinals; as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

b. Ordinals; as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

c. Distributives; as, singulī, one by one; bīnī, two by two; etc.

II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, once; bis, twice; etc.

79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

ARDINALS

RDINALS

ISTRIBUTIVES

DVERBS

ūnus, ūna, ūnum

prīmus,

first

singulī,

one by one

semel,

once

duo, duae, duo

secundus,

second

bīnī,

two by two

bis

trēs, tria

tertius,

third

ternī (trīnī)

ter

quattuor

quārtus,

fourth

quaternī

quater

quīnque

quīntus,

fifth

quīnī

quīnquiēs

sex

sextus

sēnī

sexiēs

septem

septimus

septēnī

septiēs

octō

octāvus

octōnī

octiēs

novem

nōnus

novēnī

noviēs

10.

decem

decimus

dēnī

deciēs

11.

ūndecim

ūndecimus

ūndēnī

ūndeciēs

12.

duodecim

duodecimus

duodēnī

duodeciēs

13.

tredecim

tertius decimus

ternī denī

terdeciēs

14.

quattuordecim

quārtus decimus

quaternī denī

quaterdeciēs

15.

quīndecim

quīntus decimus

quīnī dēnī

quīnquiēs deciēs

16.

sēdecim,

sexdecim

sextus decimus

sēnī dēnī

sexiēs deciēs

17.

septendecim

septimus decimus

septēnī dēnī

septiēs deciēs

18.

duodēvīgintī

duodēvīcēsimus

duodēvīcēnī

octiēs deciēs

19.

ūndēvīgintī

ūndēvīcēsimus

ūndēvīcēnī

noviēs deciēs

20.

vīgintī

vīcēsimus

vīcēnī

vīciēs

21.

vīgintī ūnus,

ūnus et vīgintī

vīcēsimus prīmus,

ūnus et vīcēsimus

vīcēnī singulī,

singulī et vīcēni

vīciēs semel

22.

vīgintī duo,

duo et vīgintī

vīcēsimus secundus,

alter et vīcēsimus

vīcēnī bīnī,

bīnī et vīcēnī

vīciēs bis

30.

trīgintā

trīcēsimus

trīcēnī

triciēs

40.

quadrāgintā

quadrāgēsimus

quadrāgēnī

quadrāgiēs

50.

quīnquāgintā

quīnquāgēsimus

quinquāgēnī

quīnquāgiēs

60.

sexāgintā

sexāgēsimus

sexāgēnī

sexāgiēs

70.

septuāgintā

septuāgēsimus

septuāgēnī

septuāgiēs

80.

octōgintā

octōgēsimus

octōgēnī

octōgiēs

90.

nōnāgintā

nōnāgēsimus

nōnāgēnī

nōnāgiēs

100.

centum

centēsimus

centēnī

centiēs

101.

centum ūnus,

centum et ūnus

centēsimus prīmus,

centēsimus et prīmus

centēnī singulī,

centēnī et singulī

centiēs semel

200.

ducentī, -ae, -a

ducentēsimus

ducēnī

ducentiēs

300.

trecentī

trecentēsimus

trecēnī

trecentiēs

400.

quadringentī

quadringentēsimus

quadringēnī

quadringentiēs

500.

quīngentī

quīngentēsimus

quīngēnī

quīngentiēs

600.

sescentī

sescentēsimus

sescēnī

sescentiēs

700.

septingentī

septingentēsimus

septingēnī

septingentiēs

800.

octingentī

octingentēsimus

octingēnī

octingentiēs

900.

nōngentī

nōngentēsimus

nōngēnī

nōngentiēs

1,000.

mīlle

mīllēsimus

singula mīlia

mīliēs

2,000.

duo mīlia

bis mīllēsimus

bīna mīlia

bis mīliēs

100,000.

centum mīlia

centiēs mīllēsimus

centēna mīlia

centiēs mīliēs

1,000,000.

deciēs centēna mīlia

deciēs centiēs mīllēsimus

deciēs centēna mīlia

deciēs centiēs mīliēs

NOTE.— -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of -ēsimus and -iēs.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.

2. Duo is declined as follows:—

Nom.

duo

duae

duo

Gen.

duōrum

duārum

duōrum

Dat.

duōbus

duābus

duōbus

Acc.

duōs, duo

duās

duo

Abl.

duōbus

duābus

duōbus

a. So ambō, both, except that its final o is long.

3. Trēs is declined,—

Nom.

trēs

tria

Gen.

trium

Dat.

tribus

Acc.

trēs (trīs)

tria

Abl.

tribus

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,—

Nom.

mīlia

Acc.

mīlia

Gen.

mīlium

Voc.

mīlia

Dat.

mīlibus

Abl.

mīlibus

Thus mīlle hominēs, a thousand men; but duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:—

trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, thirty-six.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,—

duodēvīgintī, eighteen (but also octōdecim);

ūndēquadrāgintā, thirty-nine (but also trīgintā novem or novem et trīgintā).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,—

centum vīgintī septem, one hundred and twenty-seven.

annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, in the year 882.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,—

centum et septem, one hundred and seven;

centum et quadrāgintā, one hundred and forty.

4. The Distributives are used—

a) To denote so much each, so many apiece; as,—

bīna talenta eīs dedit, he gave them two talents each.

b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,—

bīnae litterae, two epistles.

But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for one, and trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,—

ūnae litterae, one epistle; trīnae litterae, three epistles.

c) In multiplication; as,—

bis bīna sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,—

bīna hastīlia, two spears.

C. PRONOUNS.

82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:—

Personal.

Intensive.

II.

Reflexive.

VI.

Relative.

III.

Possessive.

VII.

Interrogative.

IV.

Demonstrative.

VIII.

Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84. These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:—

First Person.

Second Person.

Third Person.

SINGULAR.

Nom.

ego,

tū,

thou

is,

; ea,

she

; id,

Gen.

meī

tuī

(For declension see

§ 87

Dat.

mihi

[22]

tibi

[22]

Acc.

mē

tē

Voc.

——

tū

Abl.

mē

tē

PLURAL.

Nom.

nōs,

vōs,

you

Gen.

nostrum, nostrī

vestrum, vestrī

Dat.

nōbīs

vōbīs

Acc.

nōs

vōs

Voc.

——

vōs

Abl.

nōbīs

vōbīs

1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.

2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, I myself; tibimet, to you yourself; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).

3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:—

First Person.

Second Person.

Third Person.

Supplied by oblique cases of

ego

Supplied by oblique cases of

tū

Gen.

meī,

of myself

tuī,

of thyself

suī

Dat.

mihi,

to myself

tibi,

to thyself

sibi

[22]

Acc.

mē,

myself

tē,

thyself

sē or sēsē

Voc.

——

Abl.

mē,

with myself

etc.

tē,

with thyself

etc.

sē or sēsē

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—

inter sē pugnant, they fight with each other.

3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are—

First Person.

meus, -a, -um,

;

noster, nostra, nostrum,

our

;

Second Person.

tuus, -a, -um,

thy

;

vester, vestra, vestrum,

your

;

Third Person.

suus, -a, -um,

his

her

its

their

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,—

pater līberōs suōs amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the Genitive Plural, eōrum, eārum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte.

IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are—

[17] Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.

[18] Supplied by recentior.

[19] For newest, recentissimus is used.

[20] Supplied by minimus nātū.

[21] Supplied by maximus nātū.

[22] The final i is sometimes long in poetry.

hīc, this (where I am);

iste, that (where you are);

ille, that (something distinct from the speaker);

is, that (weaker than ille);

īdem, the same.

Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Hīc

this

SINGULAR

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

hīc

haec

hōc

hī

hae

haec

Gen.

hūjus

[23]

hūjus

hōrum

hārum

hōrum

Dat.

huic

hīs

Acc.

hunc

hanc

hōc

hōs

hās

haec

Abl.

hōc

hāc

hōc

hīs

Iste

that

that of yours.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

iste

ista

istud

[24]

istī

istae

ista

[24]

Gen.

istīus

istōrum

istārum

istōrum

Dat.

istī

istīs

Acc.

istum

istam

istud

istōs

istās

ista

[24]

Abl.

istō

istā

istō

istīs

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.[25]

this

that

SINGULAR

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom

eī, iī, (ī)

eae

Gen.

ejus

eōrum

eārum

eōrum

Dat.

eī

eīs, iīs

Acc.

eum

eam

eōs

eās

Abl.

eō

eā

eō

eīs, iīs

Īdem

the same

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom

īdem

eadem

idem

eīdem, iīdem

eaedem

eadem

Gen.

ejusdem

eōrundem

eārundem

eōrundem

Dat.

eīdem

eīsdem

Acc.

eundem

eandem

idem

eōsdem

eāsdem

eadem

Abl.

eōdem

eādem

eōdem

eīsdem

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem

V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, he himself.'

SINGULAR

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

ipse

ipsa

ipsum

ipsī

ipsae

ipsa

Gen.

ipsīus

ipsōrum

ipsārum

ipsōrum

Dat.

ipsī

ipsīs

Acc.

ipsum

ipsam

ipsum

ipsōs

ipsās

ipsa

Abl.

ipsō

ipsā

ipsō

ipsīs

VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:—

SINGULAR

PLURAL.

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

ASCULINE

EMININE

EUTER

Nom.

quī

quae

quod

quī

quae

Gen.

cūjus

quōrum

quārum

quōrum

Dat.

cui

quibus

[26]

quibus

Acc.

quem

quam

quod

quōs

quās

quae

Abl.

quō

[27]

quā

[27]

quō

quibus

[26]

quibus

VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (substantive) and quī, what? what kind of? (adjective).

1. Quis, who?

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

ASC. AND

EUTER

Nom.

quis

quid

The rare Plural

Gen.

cūjus

follows the declension

Dat.

cui

of the Relative Pronoun.

Acc.

quem

quid

Abl.

quō

2. Quī, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of how? why?

b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homō = what man? whereas quī homō = what sort of man?

d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:—

Substantive:

quisnam

who, pray? quidnam

what, pray?

Adjective:

quīnam

quaenam

quodnam

of what kind, pray?

VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of some one, any one.

SUBSTANTIVES.

ADJECTIVES.

AND

EUT

ASC

EUT

quis,

quid,

quī,

quae, qua,

quod,

any one

anything

any

aliquis,

aliquid,

aliquī,

aliqua,

aliquod,

some one

something

any

quisquam,

quidquam,

quisquam,

quidquam,

any one

anything

any

(rare)

quispiam,

quidpiam,

quispiam,

quaepiam,

quodpiam,

any one

anything

any

quisque,

quidque,

quisque,

quaeque,

quodque,

each

quīvīs,

quaevīs,

quidvīs,

quīvis,

quaevīs,

quodvis,

quīlibet,

quaelibet,

quidlibet

quilibet,

quaelibet,

quodlibet,

any one

(

anything

)

you wish

any you wish

quīdam,

quaedam,

quiddam,

quīdam,

quaedam,

quoddam,

a certain person

, or

thing

a certain

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc.

2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī substantively.

5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī.

6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,—substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,—quīcumque and quisquis, whoever. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:—

alius

another; alter

the other; uter

which of two?

(interr.);

whichever of two

(rel.);

neuter

neither; ūnus

one

;

nūllus

no one

(in oblique cases)

2. The compounds,—

uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two;

utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two;

uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please;

utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, either one you please;

alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,—

Nom.

alteruter

altera utra

alterum utrum

Gen.

alterius utrīus

etc.

CHAPTER II.—Conjugation.

93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—

1. Two Voices,—Active and Passive.

2. Three Moods,—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

3. Six Tenses,—

Present,

Perfect,

Imperfect,

Pluperfect,

Future,

Future Perfect.

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4. Two Numbers,—Singular and Plural.

5. Three Persons,—First, Second, and Third.

95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:—

1. Noun Forms,—Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2. Adjective Forms,—Participles (including the Gerundive).

96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,—

Active.

Passive.

Sing

. 1.

-ō; -m; -ī

(Perf. Ind.);

-r

-s

;

-stī

(Perf Ind.);

-tō

or wanting (Impv.);

-rīs

-re

;

-re

-tor

(Impv.).

-t; -tō

(Impv.);

-tur; -tor

(Impv.).

Plu

. 1.

-mus;

-mur

-tis

;

-stis

(Perf. Ind.);

-te

-tōte

(Impv.);

-minī

-nt; -ērunt

(Perf Ind.);

-ntō

(Impv.);

-ntur; -ntor

(Impv.).

VERB STEMS.

97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,—

I. Present Stem, from which are formed—

1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,

2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,

3. The Imperative,

4. The Present Infinitive,

- (Active and Passive.)

5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive.

II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed—

1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,

2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,

3. Perfect Infinitive,

- (Active.)

III. Participial Stem, from which are formed—

1. Perfect Participle,

2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,

3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,

4. Perfect Infinitive,

- (Passive.)

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:—

ONJUGATION

NFINITIVE

ERMINATION

ISTINGUISHING

OWEL

-āre

II.

-ēre

III.

-ĕre

IV.

-īre

99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,—so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived.

CONJUGATION OF SUM.

100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

. P

ARTIC

[29]

sum

esse

fuī

futūrus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT TENSE

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I am

mus

we are

es,

thou art

tis

you are

he is

;

unt

they are

MPERFECT

I was

āmus

we were

ās

thou wast

ātis

you were

he was

;

ant

they were

UTURE

I shall be

imus

we shall be

thou wilt be

itis

you will be

he will be

;

unt

they will be

ERFECT

I have been

I was

imus

we have been

we were

istī

thou hast been

thou wast

istis

you have been

you were

he has been

he was

;

ērunt

, fu

ēre

they have been

they were

LUPERFECT

eram

I had been

erāmus

we had been

erās

thou hadst been

erātis

you had been

erat

he had been

;

erant

they had been

UTURE

ERFECT

erō

I shall have been

erimus

we shall have been

eris

thou wilt have been

eritis

you will have been

erit

he will have been

;

erint

they will have been

SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]

RESENT

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

may I be

īmus

let us be

īs

mayst thou be

ītis

be ye

may you be

let him be

may he be

;

int

let them be

MPERFECT

sem

[31] I should be

sēmus

we should be

sēs

[31] thou wouldst be

sētis

you would be

set

[31] he would be

;

sent

[31] they would be

ERFECT

erim

I may have been

erīmus

we may have been

erīs

thou mayst have been

erītis

you may have been

erit

he may have been

;

erint

they may have been

LUPERFECT

issem

I should have been

issēmus

we should have been

issēs

thou wouldst have been

issētis

you would have been

isset

he would have been

;

issent

they would have been

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

es,

be thou

;

be ye

Fut.

tō

thou shalt be

tōte

ye shall be

tō

he shall be

;

untō

they shall be

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

to be

Perf.

isse

to have been

Fut.

tūrus

[32] to be about to be

Fut.

tūrus

[33] about to be

FIRST (OR Ā-) CONJUGATION.

101. Active Voice.—Amō, I love.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ERF

. P

ASS

. P

ARTIC

āre

āvī

ātus INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I love

āmus

we love

ās

you love

ātis

you love

he loves

;

ant

they love

MPERFECT

ābam

I was loving

[34]

ābāmus

we were loving

ābās

you were loving

ābātis

you were loving

ābat

he was loving

;

ābant

they were loving

UTURE

ābō

I shall love

ābimus

we shall love

ābis

you will love

ābitis

you will love

ābit

he will love

;

ābunt

they will love

ERFECT

amāv

I have loved

I loved

amāv

imus

we have loved

we loved

amāv

istī

you have loved

you loved

amāv

istis

you have loved

you loved

amāv

he has loved

he loved

;

amāv

ērunt

-ēre

they have loved

they loved

LUPERFECT

amāv

eram

I had loved

amāv

erāmus

we had loved

amāv

erās

you had loved

amāv

erātis

you had loved

amāv

erat

he had loved

;

amāv

erant

they had loved

UTURE

ERFECT

amāv

erō

I shall have loved

amāv

erimus

we shall have loved

amāv

eris

you will have loved

amāv

eritis

you will have loved

amāv

erit

he will have loved

;

amāv

erint

they will have loved

SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

may I love

ēmus

let us love

ēs

may you love

ētis

may you love

let him love

;

ent

let them love

MPERFECT

ārem

I should love

ārēmus

we should love

ārēs

you would love

ārētis

you would love

āret

he would love

;

ārent

they would love

ERFECT

amāv

erim

I may have loved

amāv

erīmus

we may have loved

amāv

erīs

you may have loved

amāv

erītis

you may have loved

amāv

erit

he may have loved

;

amāv

erint

they may have loved

LUPERFECT

amāv

issem

I should have loved

amāv

īssēmus

we should have loved

amāv

issēs

you would have loved

amāv

issētis

you would have loved

amāv

isset

he would have loved

;

amāv

issent

they would have loved

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

love thou

;

amāt

love ye

Fut.

ātō

thou shalt love

ātōte

ye shall love

ātō

he shall love

;

antō

they shall love

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

āre

to love

Pres.

āns

[35] loving

Perf.

amāv

isse

to have loved

(Gen. am

antis

Fut.

amāt

ūrus esse

to be about to love

Fut.

amāt

ūrus

about to love

GERUND. SUPINE.

Gen.

andī

of loving

Dat.

andō

for loving

Acc.

andum

loving

Acc.

amāt

to love

Abl.

andō

by loving

Abl.

amāt

to love

be loved

102. Passive Voice.—Amor, I am loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ōr

ārī

ātus sum INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I am loved.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

āmur

āris

āminī

ātur

antur

IMPERFECT

I was loved.

ābar

ābāmur

ābāris

or -re

ābāmini

ābātur

ābantur

UTURE

I shall be loved.

ābor

ābimur

āberis

or -re

ābiminī

ābitur

ābuntur

PERFECT

I have been loved

, or

I was loved.

amāt

(

-a

-um

)

sum[36]

amāt

(

-ae

-a

)

sumus

amāt

us es

amāt

ī estis

amāt

us est

amāt

ī sunt

LUPERFECT

I had been loved.

amāt

us eram[36]

amāt

ī erāmus

amāt

us erās

amāt

ī erātis

amāt

us erat

amāt

ī erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have been loved.

amāt

us erō[36]

amāt

ī erimus

amāt

us eris

amāt

ī eritis

amāt

us erit

amāt

ī erunt SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I be loved

let him be loved.

ēmur

ēris

or -re

ēmini

ētur

entur

MPERFECT

I should be loved

he would be loved.

ārer

ārēmur

ārēris

or -re

ārēminī

ārētur

ārentur

ERFECT

I may have been loved.

amāt

us sim[37]

amāt

ī sīmus

amāt

us sīs

amāt

i sītis

amāt

us sit

amāt

i sint

LUPERFECT

I should have been loved

he would have been loved.

amāt

us essem[37]

amāt

ī essēmus

amāt

us essēs

amāt

ī essētis

amāt

us esset

amāt

i essent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

āre

[38] be thou loved

;

āminī

be ye loved.

Fut.

ātor

thou shalt be loved

ātor

he shall be loved

;

antor

they shall be loved

INFINITIVE.

PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

ārī

to be loved

Perf.

amāt

us esse

to have been loved

Perfect.

amāt

loved

having been loved

Fut.

amāt

um īrī

to be about to be loved

Gerundive.

andus

to be loved

deserving to be loved.

SECOND (OR Ē-) CONJUGATION.

103. Active voice.—Moneō, I advise.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ERF

. P

ASS

. P

ARTIC

mon

eō

mon

ēre

mon

uī

mon

itus INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I advise.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

mon

eō

mon

ēmus

mon

ēs

mon

ētis

mon

ent

MPERFECT

I was advising

, or

I advised.

mon

ēbam

mon

ēbāmus

mon

ēbās

mon

ēbātis

mon

ēbat

mon

ēbant

UTURE

I shall advise.

mon

ēbō

mon

ēbimus

mon

ēbis

mon

ēbitis

mon

ēbit

mon

ēbunt

ERFECT

I have advised

, or

I advised.

monu

imus

monu

istī

monu

istis

monu

ērunt

or -ēre

LUPERFECT

I had advised.

monu

eram

monu

erāmus

monu

erās

monu

erātis

monu

erat

monu

erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have advised.

monu

erō

monu

erimus

monu

eris

monu

eritis

monu

erit

monu

erint SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I advise

let him advise.

mon

eam

mon

eāmus

mon

eās

mon

eātis

mon

eat

mon

eant

MPERFECT

I should advise

he would advise.

mon

ērem

mon

ērēmus

mon

ērēs

mon

ērētis

mon

ēret

mon

ērent

ERFECT

I may have advised.

monu

erim

monu

erīmus

monu

erīs

monu

erītis

monu

erit

monu

erint

LUPERFECT

I should have advised

he would have advised.

monu

issem

monu

issēmus

monu

issēs

monu

issētis

monu

isset

monu

issent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

mon

advise thou

;

mon

ēte

advise ye

Fut.

mon

ētō

thou shall advise

mon

ētōte

ye shall advise

mon

ētō

he shall advise

;

mon

entō

they shall advise. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

mon

ēre

to advise

Pres.

mon

ēns

advising

Perf.

monu

isse

to have advised

(Gen. mon

entis

Fut.

monit

ūrus esse

to be about to advise

Fut.

monit

ūrus

about to advise

GERUND. SUPINE.

Gen.

mon

endī

of advising

Dat.

mon

endō

for advising

Acc.

mon

endum

advising

Acc.

monit

to advise

Abl.

mon

endō

by advising

Abl.

monit

to advise

be advised

104. Passive voice.—Moneor, I am advised.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

mon

eor

mon

ērī

mon

itus sum INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I am advised.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

mon

eor

mon

ēmur

mon

ēris

mon

ēminī

mon

ētur

mon

entur

MPERFECT

I was advised.

mon

ēbar

mon

ēbāmur

mon

ēbāris

or -re

mon

ēbāminī

mon

ēbātur

mon

ēbantur

UTURE

I shall be advised.

mon

ēbor

mon

ēbimur

mon

ēberis

or -re

mon

ēbiminī

mon

ēbitur

mon

ēbuntur

ERFECT

I have been advised

I was advised.

monit

us sum

monit

ī sumus

monit

us es

monit

ī estis

monit

us est

monit

ī sunt

LUPERFECT

I had been advised.

monit

us eram

monit

ī erāmus

monit

us erās

monit

ī erātis

monit

us erat

monit

ī erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have been advised.

monit

us erō

monit

ī erimus

monit

us eris

monit

ī eritis

monit

us erit

monit

ī erunt SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I be advised

let him be advised.

mon

ear

mon

eāmur

mon

eāris

or -re

mon

eāminī

mon

eātur

mon

eantur

MPERFECT

I should be advised

he would be advised.

mon

ērer

mon

ērēmur

mon

ērēris

or -re

mon

ērēminī

mon

ērētur

mon

ērentur

ERFECT

I may have been advised.

monit

us sim

monit

ī sīmus

monit

us sīs

monit

ī sītis

monit

us sit

monit

ī sint

LUPERFECT

I should have been advised

he would have been advised.

monit

us essem

monit

ī essēmus

monit

us essēs

monit

ī essētis

monit

us esset

monit

ī essent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

mon

ēre

be thou advised

;

mon

ēminī

be ye advised

Fut.

mon

ētor

thou shalt be advised

mon

ētor

he shall be advised

mon

entor

they shall be advised

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

mon

ērī

to be advised

Perfect.

monit

advised

having been advised

Perf.

monit

us esse

to have been advised

Fut.

monit

um īrī

to be about to be advised.

Gerundive.

mon

endus

to be advised

deserving to be advised.

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105. Active Voice.—Regō, I rule.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ERF

. P

ASS

. P

ARTIC

reg

ere

rē

xī

rēc

tus INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I rule

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

reg

imus

reg

itis

reg

unt

MPERFECT

I was ruling

, or

I ruled

reg

ēbam

reg

ēbāmus

reg

ēbās

reg

ēbātis

reg

ēbat

reg

ēbant

UTURE

I shall rule

reg

ēmus

reg

ēs

reg

ētis

reg

ent

ERFECT

I have ruled

, or

I ruled

rēx

imus

rēx

istī

rēx

istis

rēx

ērunt

or -ēre

LUPERFECT

I had ruled

rēx

eram

rēx

erāmus

rēx

erās

rēx

erātis

rēx

erat

rēx

erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have ruled

rēx

erō

rēx

erimus

rēx

eris

rēx

eritis

rēx

erit

rēx

erint SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I rule

let him rule.

reg

āmus

reg

ās

reg

ātis

reg

ant

MPERFECT

I should rule

he would rule.

reg

erem

reg

erēmus

reg

erēs

reg

erētis

reg

eret

reg

erent

ERFECT

I may have ruled.

rēx

erim

rēx

erīmus

rēx

erīs

rēx

erītis

rēx

erit

rēx

erint

LUPERFECT

I should have ruled

he would have ruled.

rēx

issem

rēx

issēmus

rēx

issēs

rēx

issētis

rēx

isset

rēx

issent IMPERATIVE.

reg

rule thou

;

reg

ite

rule ye

reg

itō

thou shall rule

reg

itōte

ye shall rule

reg

itō

he shall rule

;

reg

untō

they shall rule

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

reg

ere

to rule

Pres.

reg

ēns

ruling

rēx

isse

to have ruled

(Gen. reg

entis

rēct

ūrus esse

to be about to rule

Fut.

rēct

ūrus

about to rule

GERUND. SUPINE.

reg

endī

of ruling

reg

endō

for ruling

reg

endum

ruling

Acc.

rēct

to rule

reg

endō

by ruling

Abl.

rēct

to rule

be ruled

[23] Forms of hīc ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis; as, hūjusce, this ... here; hōsce, hīsce. When -ne is added, -c and -ce become -ci; as huncine, hōscine.

[24] For istud, istūc sometimes occurs; for ista, istaec.

[25] For illud, illūc sometimes occurs.

[26] Sometimes quīs.

[27] An ablative quī occurs in quīcum, with whom.

[28] Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.

[29] The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.

[30] The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.

[31] For essem, essēs, esset, essent, the forms forem, forēs, foret, forent are sometimes used.

[32] For futūrus esse, the form fore is often used.

[33] Declined like bonus, -a, -um.

[34] The Imperfect also means I loved.

[35] For declension of amāns, see § 70, 3.

[36] Fuī, fuistī, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fuerās, etc., for eram, etc.; fuerō, etc., for erō, etc.

[37] Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim; so fuissem, etc., for essem.

[38] In actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents (§ 112).

106. Passive Voice.—Regor, I am ruled.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

reg

rēct

us sum INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I am ruled.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

reg

imur

reg

eris

reg

iminī

reg

itur

reg

untur

MPERFECT

I was ruled.

reg

ēbar

reg

ēbāmur

reg

ēbāris

or -re

reg

ēbāminī

reg

ēbātur

reg

ēbantur

UTURE

I shall be ruled.

reg

ēmur

reg

ēris

or -re

reg

ēminī

reg

ētur

reg

entur

ERFECT

I have been ruled

, or

I was ruled

rēct

us sum

rēct

ī sumus

rēct

us es

rēct

ī estis

rēct

us est

rēct

ī sunt

LUPERFECT

I had been ruled.

rēct

us eram

rēct

ī erāmus

rēct

us erās

rēct

ī erātis

rēct

us erat

rēct

ī erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have been ruled

rēct

us erō

rēct

ī erimus

rēct

us eris

rēct

ī eritis

rēct

us erit

rēct

ī erunt SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I be ruled

let him be ruled.

reg

āmur

reg

āris

or -re

reg

āminī

reg

ātur

reg

antur

MPERFECT

I should be ruled

he would be ruled.

reg

erer

reg

erēmur

reg

erēris

or -re

reg

erēminī

reg

erētur

reg

erentur

ERFECT

I may have been ruled.

rēct

us sim

rēct

ī sīmus

rēct

us sīs

rēct

ī sītis

rēct

us sit

rēct

ī sint

LUPERFECT

I should have been ruled

he would have been ruled.

rēct

us essem

rēct

ī essēmus

rēct

us essēs

rect

ī essētis

rēct

us esset

rect

ī essent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

reg

ere

be thou ruled

;

reg

iminī

be ye ruled

Fut.

reg

itor

thou shalt be ruled

reg

itor

he shall be ruled

;

reg

untor

they shall be ruled

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

reg

to be ruled

Perfect.

rēct

ruled

having been ruled

Perf.

rēct

us esse

to have been ruled

Gerundive.

reg

endus

to be ruled

deserving to be ruled

Fut.

rēct

um īrī

to be about to be ruled

FOURTH (OR Ī-) CONJUGATION.

107. Active voice.—Audiō, I hear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ERF

. P

ASS

. P

ARTIC

aud

iō

aud

īre

aud

īvī

aud

ītus INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I hear.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

aud

iō

aud

īmus

aud

īs

aud

ītis

aud

iunt

MPERFECT

I was hearing

, or

I heard.

aud

iēbam

aud

iēbāmus

aud

iēbās

aud

iēbātis

aud

iēbat

aud

iēbant

UTURE

I shall hear.

aud

iam

aud

iēmus

aud

iēs

aud

iētis

aud

iet

aud

ient

ERFECT

I have heard

, or

I heard.

audīv

imus

audīv

istī

audīv

istis

audīv

ērunt

or -ēre

LUPERFECT

I had heard.

audīv

eram

audīv

erāmus

audīv

erās

audīv

erātis

audīv

erat

audīv

erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have heard.

audīv

erō

audīv

erimus

audīv

eris

audīv

eritis

audīv

erit

audīv

erint SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I hear

let him hear.

aud

iam

aud

iāmus

aud

iās

aud

iātis

aud

iat

aud

iant

MPERFECT

I should hear

he would hear.

aud

īrem

aud

īrēmus

aud

īrēs

aud

īrētis

aud

īret

aud

īrent

ERFECT

I may have heard.

audīv

erim

audīv

erīmus

audīv

erīs

audīv

erītis

audīv

erit

audīv

erint

LUPERFECT

I should have heard

he would have heard.

audīv

issem

audīv

issēmus

audīv

issēs

audīv

issētis

audīv

isset

audīv

issent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

aud

hear thou

;

aud

īte

hear ye

Fut.

aud

ītō

thou shalt hear

aud

ītōte

ye shall hear

aud

ītō

he shall hear

;

aud

iuntō

they shall hear

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

aud

īre

to hear

Pres.

aud

iēns

hearing

Perf.

audīv

isse

to have heard

(Gen. aud

ientis

Fut.

audīt

ūrus esse

to be about to hear

Fut.

audīt

ūrus

about to hear

GERUND. SUPINE

Gen.

aud

iendī

of hearing

Dat.

aud

iendō

for hearing

Acc.

aud

iendum

hearing

Acc.

audīt

to hear

Abl.

aud

iendō

by hearing

Abl.

audīt

to hear, be heard

108. Passive Voice.—Audior, I am heard.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

aud

ior

aud

īrī

aud

ītus sum INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

I am heard

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

aud

ior

aud

īmur

aud

īris

aud

īminī

aud

ītur

aud

iuntur

MPERFECT

I was heard

aud

iēbar

aud

iēbāmur

aud

iēbāris

or -re

aud

iēbāminī

aud

iēbātur

aud

iēbantur

UTURE

I shall be heard

aud

iar

aud

iēmur

aud

iēris

or -re

aud

iēminī

aud

iētur

aud

ientur

ERFECT

I have been heard

, or

I was heard

audīt

us sum

audīt

ī sumus

audīt

us es

audīt

ī estis

audīt

us est

audīt

ī sunt

LUPERFECT

I had been heard

audīt

us eram

audīt

ī erāmus

audīt

us erās

audīt

ī erātis

audīt

us erat

audīt

ī erant

UTURE

ERFECT

I shall have been heard

audīt

us erō

audīt

ī erimus

audīt

us eris

audīt

ī eritis

audīt

us erit

audīt

ī erunt SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

May I be heard

let him be heard

aud

iar

aud

iāmur

aud

iāris

or -re

aud

iāminī

aud

iātur

aud

iantur

MPERFECT

I should be heard

he would be heard

aud

īrer

aud

īrēmur

aud

īrēris

or -re

aud

irēminī

aud

īrētur

aud

īrentur

ERFECT

I may have been heard

audīt

us sim

audīt

ī sīmus

audīt

us sīs

audīt

ī sītis

audīt

us sit

audīt

ī sint

LUPERFECT

I should have been heard

he would have been heard

audīt

us essem

audīt

ī essēmus

audīt

us essēs

audīt

ī essētis

audīt

us esset

audīt

ī essent IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

aud

īre

be thou heard

;

aud

īminī

, be ye heard.

Fut.

aud

ītor

thou shalt be heard

aud

ītor

he shall be heard

;

aud

iuntor

they shall be heard

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

aud

īrī

to be heard

Perfect.

audīt

heard

having been heard

Perf.

audīt

us esse

to have been heard

Gerundive.

aud

iendus

to be heard

deserving to be heard

Fut.

audīt

um īrī

to be about to be heard

VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

109. 1. Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in the Present System.

2. Here belong—

a) capiō, to take; cupiō, to desire; faciō, to make; fodiō, to dig; fugiō, to flee; jaciō, to throw; pariō, to bear; quatiō, to shake; rapiō, to seize; sapiō, to taste.

b) Compounds of laciō and speciō (both ante-classical); as, alliciō, entice; cōnspiciō, behold.

c) The deponents gradior, to go; morior, to die, patior, to suffer.

110. Active voice.—Capiō, I take.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

ERF

. P

ASS

. P

ARTIC

capiō,

capere,

cēpī,

captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

capiō, capis, capit;

capimus, capitis, capiunt.

MPERFECT

capiēbam, -iēbās, -iēbat;

capiēbāmus, -iēbātis, -iēbant.

UTURE

capiam, -iēs, -iet;

capiēmus, -iētis, -ient.

ERFECT

cēpī, -istī, -it;

cēpimus, -istis, -ērunt or -ēre.

LUPERFECT

cēperam, -erās, -erat;

cēperāmus, -erātis, -erant.

UTURE

ERFECT

cēperō, -eris, -erit;

cēperimus, -eritis, -erint.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

capiam, -iās, -iat;

capiāmus, -iātis, -iant.

MPERFECT

caperem, -erēs, -eret;

caperēmus, -erētis, -erent.

ERFECT

cēperim, -eris, -erit;

cēperīmus, -erītis, -erint.

LUPERFECT

cēpissem, -issēs, -isset;

cēpissēmus, -issētis, -issent.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

cape;

capite.

Fut.

capitō,

capitōte,

capitō;

capiuntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

capere

Pres.

capiēns.

Perf.

cēpisse.

Fut.

captūrus esse.

Fut.

captūrus.

GERUND. SUPINE.

Gen.

capiendī,

Dat.

capiendō,

Acc.

capiendum,

Acc.

captum,

Abl.

capiendō.

Abl.

captū.

111. Passive Voice.—Capior, I am taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

RES

. I

RES

. I

ERF

. I

capior,

capī,

captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

RESENT

ENSE

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

capior, caperis, capitur;

capimur, capiminī, capiuntur.

MPERFECT

capiēbar, -iēbāris, -iēbātur;

capiēbāmur, -iēbāminī, -iēbantur.

UTURE

capiar, -iēris, -iētur;

capiēmur, -iēminī, -ientur.

ERFECT

captus sum, es, est;

captī sumus, estis, sunt.

LUPERFECT

captus eram, erās, erat;

captī erāmus, erātis, erant.

UTURE

ERFECT

captus erō, eris, erit;

captī erimus, eritis, erunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

RESENT

capiar, -iāris, -iātur;

capiāmur, -iāminī, -iantur.

MPERFECT

caperer, -erēris, -erētur;

caperēmur, -erēminī, -erentur.

ERFECT

captus sim, sīs, sit;

captī sīmus, sītis, sint.

LUPERFECT

captus essem, essēs, esset;

captī essēmus, essētis, essent.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

capere;

capiminī.

Fut.

capitor,

capitor;

capiuntor.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

capī.

Perf.

captus esse.

Perfect.

captus.

Fut.

captum īrī.

Gerundive.

capiendus.

DEPONENT VERBS.

112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active or Neuter meaning. But—

a. They have the following Active forms: Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.

b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as—

sequendus, to be followed; adeptus, attained.

113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are—

I. Conj.

mīror

mīrārī

mīrātus sum

admire

II. Conj.

vereor

vererī

veritus sum

fear

III. Conj.

sequor

sequī

secūtus sum

follow

IV. Conj.

largior

largīrī

largītus sum

give

III. (in

-ior

)

patior

patī

passus sum

suffer

INDICATIVE MOOD.

II.

III.

IV.

III (in

-ior

)

Pres.

mīror

vereor

sequor

largior

patior

mīrāris

verēris

sequeris

largiris

pateris

mīrātur

verētur

sequitur

largītur

patitur

mīramur

verēmur

sequimur

largīmur

patimur

mīrāminī

verēminī

sequiminī

largīminī

patiminī

mīrantur

verentur

sequuntur

largiuntur

patiuntur

Impf.

mīrābar

verēbar

sequēbar

largiēbar

patiēbar

Fut.

mīrābor

verēbor

sequar

largiar

patiar

Perf.

mirātus sum

veritus sum

secūtus sum

largītus sum

passus sum

Plup.

mīrātus eram

veritus eram

secūtus eram

largītus eram

passus eram

F.P.

mīrātus erō

veritus erō

secūtus erō

largītus erō

passus erō

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

mīrer

verear

sequar

largiar

patiar

Impf.

mīrārer

verērer

sequerer

largīrer

paterer

Perf.

mīrātus sim

veritus sim

secūtus sim

largītus sim

passus sim

Plup.

mīrātus essem

veritus essem

sectūtus essem

largītus essem

passus essem

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

mīrāre,

etc.

verēre,

etc.

sequere,

etc.

largīre,

etc.

patere,

etc.

Fut.

mīrātor,

etc.

verētor,

etc.

sequitor,

etc.

largītor,

etc.

patitor,

etc. INFINITIVE.

Pres.

mīrāri

verērī

sequī

largīrī

patī

Perf.

mīrātus esse

veritus esse

secūtus esse

largītus esse

passus esse

Fut.

mīrātūrus esse

veritūrus esse

secūtūrus esse

largītūrus esse

passūrus esse

PARTICIPLES.

Pres.

mīrāns

verēns

sequēns

largiēns

patiēns

Fut.

mīrātūrus

veritūrus

secūtūrus

largitūrus

passūrus

Perf.

mīrātus

veritus

secūtus

largitus

passus

Ger.

mīrandus

verendus

sequendus

largiendus

patiendus

GERUND.

mīrandī

verendī

sequendī

largiendī

patiendī

mirandō,

etc.

verendō,

etc.

sequendō,

etc.

largiendō,

etc.

patiendō,

etc. SUPINE.

mīrātum, -tū

veritum, -tū

secūtum, -tū

largītum, -tū

passum, -sū

SEMI-DEPONENTS.

114. 1. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong—

audeō

audēre

ausus sum

to dare

gaudeō

gaudēre

gāvīsus sum

to rejoice

soleō

solēre

solitus sum

to be wont

fīdō

fīdere

fīsus sum

to trust

2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active meaning:—

adolēscō

grow up

;

adultus

having grown up

cēnāre

dine

;

cēnātus

having dined

placēre

please

;

placitus

having pleased

agreeable

prandēre

lunch

;

prānsus

having lunched

pōtāre

drink

;

pōtus

having drunk

jūrāre

swear

;

jūrātus

having sworn

a. Jūrātus is used in a passive sense also.

3. Revertor and dēvertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active Voice; viz.—

revertor

revertī

(Inf.),

revertī

(Perf.),

to return

dēvertor

dēvertī

(Inf.),

dēvertī

(Perf.),

to turn aside

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,—the Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.

Active Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres.

amātūrus

(

-a

-um

)

sum

I am about to love

Inf.

amātūrus eram

I was about to love

Fut.

amātūrus erō

I shall be about to love

Perf.

amātūrus fuī

I have been (was) about to love

Plup.

amātūrus fueram

I had been about to love

Fut. P.

amātūrus fuerō

I shall have been about to love

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

amātūrus sim

may I be about to love

Imp.

amātūrus essem

I should be about to love

Perf.

amātūrus fuerim

I may have been about to love

Plup.

amātūrus fuissem

I should have been about to love

INFINITIVE.

Pres.

amātūrus esse

to be about to love

Perf.

amātūrus fuisse

to have been about to love

Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE.

Pres.

amandus

(

-a

-um

)

sum

I am to be loved

must be loved

Imp.

amandus eram

I was to be loved

Fut.

amandus erō

I shall deserve to be loved

Perf.

amandus fuī

I was to be loved

Plup.

amandus fueram

I had deserved to be loved

Fut. P.

amandus fuerō

I shall have deserved to be loved

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

amandus sim

may I deserve to be loved

Imp.

amandus essem

I should deserve to be loved

Perf.

amandus fuerim

I may have deserved to be loved

Plup.

amendus fuissem

I should have deserved to be loved

INFINITIVE.

Pres.

amandus esse

to deserve to be loved

Perf.

amantus fuisse

to have deserved to be loved

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.

116. 1. Perfects in -āvī, -ēvī, and -īvī, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s. So also nōvī (from nōscō) and the compounds of mōvī (from moveō). Thus:—

amāvistī

amāstī

dēlēvistī

dēlēstī

amāvisse

amāsse

dēlēvisse

dēlēsse

amāvērunt

amārunt

dēlēvērunt

dēlērunt

amāverim

amārim

dēlēverim

dēlērim

amāveram

amāram

dēlēveram

dēlēram

amāverō

amārō

dēlēverō

dēlērō

nōvistī

nōstī

nōverim

nōrim

nōvisse

nōsse

nōveram

nōram

audīvistī

audīstī

audīvisse

audīsse

2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, the endings -undus, -undī, often occur instead of -endus and -endī, as faciundus, faciundī.

3. Dīcō, dūcō, faciō, form the Imperatives, dīc, dūc, fac. But compounds of faciō form the Imperative in -fice, as cōnfice. Compounds of dīcō, dūcō, accent the ultima; as, ēdū´c, ēdī´c.

4. Archaic and Poetic forms:—

a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amārier, monērier, dīcier, for amārī, monērī, dīcī.

b. The ending -ībam for -iēbam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -ībō for -iam in Futures; as, scībam, scībō, for sciēbam, sciam.

c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dīxistī, scrīpsistis, surrēxisse, we sometimes find dīxtī, scrīpstis, surrēxe, etc.

d. The endings -im, -īs, etc. (for -am, -ās, etc.) occur in a few Subjunctive forms; as, edim (eat), duint, perduint.

5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary esse is often omitted; as, āctūrum for ācturum esse; ējectus for ējectus esse.

FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.

Formation of the Present Stem.

117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;[39] as, dīcere, amāre, monēre, audīre. Others modify the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows:—

1. By appending the vowels, ā, ē, ī; as,—

Present Stem

Verb Stem

juvāre

juvā-

juv-

augēre

augē-

aug-

vincīre

vincī-

vinc-

2. By adding i, as capiō, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).

3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final consonant of the Verb Stem; as, fundō (Stem fud-), rumpō (Stem rup-).

4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,—

cern-ō

pell-ō

(for

pel-nō

5. By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,—

flect-ō.

6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,—

crēsc-ō

scīsc-ō

7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i; as,—

gi-gn-ō

(root

gen-

si-st-ō

(root

sta-

Formation of the Perfect Stem.

118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem—

1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems); as,—

amāv-ī

dēlēv-ī

audīv-ī

2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems); as,—

strepu-ī

genu-ī

alu-ī

3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems); as,—

carp-ō

Perfect

carps-ī

scrīb-ō

scrīps-ī

(for

scrīb-sī

rīd-eō

rīs-ī

(for

rīd-sī

sent-iō

sēns-ī

(for

sent-sī

dīc-ō

dīx-ī

(

i.e. dīc-sī

a. Note that before the ending -sī a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p.

4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types:—

a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with the following vowel or e; as,—

currō

Perfect

cu-currī

poscō

po-poscī

pellō

pe-pulī

NOTE 1.—Compounds, with the exception of dō, stō, sistō, discō, poscō, omit the reduplication. Thus: com-pulī, but re-poposcī.

NOTE 2.—Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeō, spo-pondī; stō, stetī.

b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, legō, lēgī; agō, ēgī. Note that ă by this process becomes ē.

c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, vertō, vertī; minuō, minuī.

Formation of the Participial Stem.

119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed:—

1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem); as,—

amā-re

Participle

amā-tus

dēlē-re

dēlē-tus

audī-re

audī-tus

leg-ere

lēc-tus

scrīb-ere

scrīp-tus

sentī-re

sēn-sus

(for

sent-tus

caed-ere

cae-sus

(for

caed-tus

a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see § 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (§ 8, 2).

2. After the analogy of Participles like sēnsus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems; as,—

lāb-ī

Participle

lāp-sus

fīg-ere

fī-xus

a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § 118, 3, a).

3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -ĭtus; as,—

domā-re

dom-ĭtus

monē-re

mon-ĭtus

4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, amā-tus, amātūrus; moni-tus, monitūrus. But—

juvā-re

Perf. Partic.

jūtus

has Fut. Act. Partic.

juvātūrus

[40] lavā-re

lautus

lavātūrus

par-ere

partus

paritūrus

ru-ere

rutus

ruitūrus

secă-re

sectus

secātūrus

fru-ĭ

frūctus

fruitūrus

mor-ī

mortuus

moritūrus

orī-rī

ortus

oritūrus.

LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.

First (Ā-) Conjugation.

120. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.

amō

amāre

amāvī

amātus

love

All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

pōtō

pōtāre

pōtāvī

pōtus (

§ 114

, 2)

drink

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

crepō

crepāre

crepuī

crepitūrus

rattle

cubō

cubāre

cubuī

cubitūrus

lie down

domō

domāre

domuī

domitus

tame

fricō

fricāre

fricuī

frictus

and

fricātus

rub

micō

micāre

micuī

——

glitter

dīmicō

dīmicāre

dīmicāvī

dīmicātum (est)

[41]

fight

ex-plicō

explicāre

explicāvī (-uī)

explicātus (-itus)

unfold

im-plicō

implicāre

implicāvī (-uī)

implicātus (-itus)

entwine

secō

secāre

secuī

sectus

cut

sonō

sonāre

sonuī

sonātūrus

sound

tonō

tonāre

tonuī

——

thunder

vetō

vetāre

vetuī

vetitus

forbid

III. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.

juvō

juvāre

jūvī

jūtus

help

lavō

lavāre

lāvī

lautus

wash

IV. PERFECT REDUPLICATED.

stō

stāre

stetī

stātūrus

V. DEPONENTS.

These are all regular, and follow mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum.

Second (Ē-) Conjugation.

121. I. PERFECT IN -VĪ.

dēleō

dēlēre

dēlēvī

dēlētus

destroy

fleō

flēre

flēvī

flētus

weep

lament

com-pleō

[42]

complēre

complēvī

complētus

fill up

aboleō

abolēre

abolēvī

abolitus

destroy

cieō

[43]

ciēre

cīvī

citus

set in motion

II. PERFECT IN -UĪ.

a. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -itus.

arceō

arcēre

arcuī

keep off

coerceō

coercēre

coercuī

coercitus

hold in check

exerceō

exercēre

exercuī

exercitus

practise

caleō

calēre

caluī

calitūrus

be warm

careō

carēre

caruī

caritūrus

be without

doleō

dolēre

doluī

dolitūrus

grieve

habeō

habēre

habuī

habitus

have

dēbeō

dēbēre

dēbuī

dēbitus

owe

praebeō

praebēre

praebuī

praebitus

offer

jaceō

jacēre

jacuī

jacitūrus

lie

mereō

merēre

meruī

meritus

earn

deserve

moneō

monēre

monuī

monitus

advise

noceō

nocēre

nocuī

nocitum (est)

injure

pāreō

pārēre

pāruī

pāritūrus

obey

placeō

placēre

placuī

placitūrus

please

taceō

tacēre

tacuī

tacitūrus

be silent

terreō

terrēre

terruī

territus

frighten

valeō

valēre

valuī

valitūrus

be strong

NOTE 1.—The following lack the Participial Stem:—

egeō

egēre

eguī

——

want

ēmineō

ēminēre

ēminuī

——

stand forth

flōreō

flōrēre

flōruī

——

bloom

horreō

horrēre

horruī

——

bristle

lateō

latēre

latuī

——

lurk

niteō

nitēre

nituī

——

gleam

oleō

olēre

oluī

——

smell

palleō

pallēre

palluī

——

be pale

pateō

patēre

patuī

——

lie open

rubeō

rubēre

rubuī

——

be red

sileō

silēre

siluī

——

be silent

splendeō

splendēre

splenduī

——

gleam

studeō

studēre

studuī

——

study

stupeō

stupēre

stupuī

——

be amazed

timeō

timēre

timuī

——

fear

torpeō

torpēre

torpuī

——

be dull

vigeō

vigēre

viguī

——

flourish

vireō

virēre

viruī

——

be green

and others.

OTE

2.—The following are used only in the Present System:—

aveō

avēre

——

wish

frīgeō

frīgēre

——

be cold

immineō

imminēre

——

overhang

maereō

maerēre

——

mourn

polleō

pollēre

——

be strong

and others.

[39] Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (ĕ or ŏ); as, dīc-ĕ-, dīc-ŏ-; amā-ĕ-, amā-ŏ-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the author's Latin Language.

[40] But the compounds of juvō sometimes have -jūtūrus; as, adjūtūrus.

[41] Used only impersonally.

[42] So impleō, expleō.

[43] Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation: acciō, accīre, etc.

b. Type -eō, -ēre, -uī, -tus (-sus).

cēnseō

cēnsēre

cēnsuī

cēnsus

estimate

doceō

docēre

docuī

doctus

teach

misceō

miscēre

miscuī

mixtus

mix

teneō

tenēre

tenuī

——

hold

contineō

and

sustineō

; but—

retineō

retinēre

retinuī

retentus

retain

obtineō

obtinēre

obtinuī

obtentus

maintain

torreō

torrēre

torruī

tostus

bake

III. PERFECT IN -SĪ.

augeō

augēre

auxī

auctus

increase

torqueō

torquēre

torsī

tortus

twist

indulgeō

indulgēre

indulsī

——

indulge

lūceō

lūcēre

lūxī

——

be light

lūgeō

lūgēre

lūxī

——

mourn

jubeō

jubēre

jussī

jussus

order

per-mulceō

permulcēre

permulsī

permulsus

soothe

rīdeō

rīdēre

rīsī

rīsum (est)

laugh

suādeō

suādēre

suāsī

suāsum (est)

advise

abs-tergeō

abstergēre

abstersī

abstersus

wipe off

ārdeō

ārdēre

ārsī

ārsūrus

burn

haereō

haerēre

haesī

haesūrus

stick

maneō

manēre

mānsī

mānsūrus

stay

algeō

algēre

alsī

——

be cold

fulgeō

fulgēre

fulsī

——

gleam

urgeō

urgēre

ursī

——

press

IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH REDUPLICATION.

mordeō

mordēre

momordī

morsus

bite

spondeō

spondēre

spopondī

spōnsus

promise

tondeō

tondēre

totondī

tōnsus

shear

pendeō

pendēre

pependī

——

hang

V. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

caveō

cavēre

cāvī

cautūrus

take care

faveō

favēre

fāvī

fautūrus

favor

foveō

fovēre

fōvī

fōtus

cherish

moveō

movēre

mōvī

mōtus

move

paveō

pavēre

pāvī

——

fear

sedeō

sedēre

sēdī

sessūrus

sit

videō

vidēre

vīdī

vīsus

see

voveō

vovēre

vōvī

vōtus

vow

VI. PERFECT IN -Ī WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

ferveō

fervēre

(fervī, ferbuī)

——

boil

prandeō

prandēre

prandī

prānsus (

§ 114

, 2)

lunch

strīdeō

strīdēre

strīdī

——

creak

VII. DEPONENTS.

liceor

licērī

licitus sum

bid

polliceor

pollicērī

pollicitus sum

promise

mereor

merērī

meritus sum

earn

misereor

miserērī

miseritus sum

pity

vereor

verērī

veritus sum

fear

fateor

fatērī

fassus sum

confess

cōnfiteor

cōnfitērī

cōnfessus sum

confess

reor

rērī

ratus sum

think

medeor

medērī

——

heal

tueor

tuērī

——

protect

Third (Consonant) Conjugation.

122. I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT.

1. Perfect in -sī.

a. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -tus.

carpō

carpere

carpsī

carptus

pluck

sculpō

sculpere

sculpsī

sculptus

chisel

rēpō

rēpere

rēpsī

——

creep

serpō

serpere

serpsī

——

crawl

scribō

scribere

scrīpsī

scrīptus

write

nūbō

nūbere

nūpsī

nūpta (woman only)

marry

regō

regere

rēxī

rēctus

govern

tegō

tegere

tēxī

tēctus

cover

af-flīgō

afflīgere

afflīxī

afflīctus

shatter

dīcō

dīcere

dīxī

dictus

say

dūcō

dūcere

dūxī

ductus

lead

coquō

coquere

coxī

coctus

cook

trahō

trahere

trāxī

trāctus

draw

vehō

vehere

vexī

vectus

carry

cingō

cingere

cīnxī

cīnctus

gird

tingō

tingere

tīnxī

tīnctus

dip

jungō

jungere

jūnxī

jūnctus

join

fingō

fingere

fīnxī

fīctus

would

pingō

pingere

pīnxī

pīctus

paint

stringō

stringere

strīnxī

strictus

bind

-stinguō

[44]

-stinguere

-stīnxī

-stīnctus

blot out

unguō

unguere

ūnxī

ūnctus

anoint

vīvō

vīvere

vīxī

vīctum (est)

live

gerō

gerere

gessī

gestus

carry

urō

ūrere

ussī

ūstus

burn

temnō

temnere

con-tempsī

con-temptus

despise

b. Type -ō, -ĕre, -sī, -sus.

fīgō

fīgere

fīxī

fīxus

fasten

mergō

mergere

mersī

mersus

sink

spargō

spargere

sparsī

sparsus

scatter

flectō

flectere

flexī

flexus

bend

nectō

nectere

nexuī (nexī)

nexus

twine

mittō

mittere

mīsī

missus

send

rādō

rādere

rāsī

rāsus

shave

rōdō

rōdere

rōsī

rōsus

gnaw

vādō

vādere

-vāsī

[45]

-vāsum (est)

[45] march

walk

lūdō

lūdere

lūsī

lūsum (est)

play

trūdō

trūdere

trūsī

trūsus

push

laedō

laedere

laesī

laesus

injure

hurt

claudō

claudere

clausī

clausus

plaudō

plaudere

plausī

plausum (est)

clap

explōdō

explōdere

explōsī

explōsus

hoot off

cēdō

cēdere

cessī

cessum (est)

withdraw

dīvidō

dīvidere

dīvīsī

dīvīsus

divide

premō

premere

pressī

pressus

press

2. Perfect in -ī with Reduplication.

ab-dō

abdere

abdidī

abditus

conceal

red-dō

red-dere

reddidī

redditus

return

addō

condō

dēdō

perdō

prōdō

trādō

etc.

cōn-sistō

cōnsistere

cōnstitī

——

take one's stand

resistō

resistere

restitī

——

resist

circumsistō

circumsistere

circumstetī

——

surround

cadō

cadere

cecidī

cāsūrus

fall

caedō

caedere

cecīdī

caesus

kill

pendō

pendere

pependī

pēnsus

weigh

pay

tendō

tendere

tetendī

tentus

stretch

tundō

tundere

tutudī

tūsus, tūnsus

beat

fallō

fallere

fefellī

(falsus, as Adj.)

deceive

pellō

pellere

pepulī

pulsus

drive out

currō

currere

cucurrī

cursum (est)

run

parcō

parcere

pepercī

parsūrus

spare

canō

canere

cecinī

——

sing

tangō

tangere

tetigī

tāctus

touch

pungō

pungere

pupugī

pūnctus

prick

OTE

.—In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable:—

per-cellō

percellere

perculī

perculsus

strike down

findō

findere

fidī

fissus

split

scindō

scindere

scidī

scissus

tear apart

tollō

tollere

sus-tulī

sublātus

remove

3. Perfect in -ī with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

agō

agere

ēgī

āctus

drive

peragō

peragere

perēgī

perāctus

finish

subigō

subigere

subēgī

subāctus

subdue

cōgō

cōgere

coēgī

coāctus

force

gather

frangō

frangere

frēgī

frāctus

break

perfringō

perfringere

perfrēgī

perfrāctus

break down

legō

legere

lēgī

lēctus

gather

read

perlegō

perlegere

perlēgī

perlēctus

read through

colligō

colligere

collēgī

collēctus

collect

dēligō

dēligere

dēlēgī

dēlēctus

choose

dīligō

dīligere

dīlēxī

dīlēctus

love

intellegō

intellegere

intellēxī

intellēctus

understand

neglegō

neglegere

neglēxī

neglēctus

neglect

emō

emere

ēmī

ēmptus

buy

coëmō

coëmere

coēmī

coēmptus

buy up

redimō

redimere

redēmī

redēmptus

buy back

dirimō

dirimere

dirēmī

dirēmptus

destroy

dēmō

dēmere

dēmpsī

dēmptus

take away

sūmō

sūmere

sūmpsī

sūmptus

take

prōmō

prōmere

prōmpsī

(prōmptus, as Adj.)

take out

vincō

vincere

vīcī

victus

conquer

re-linquō

relinquere

relīquī

relīctus

leave

rumpō

rumpere

rūpī

ruptus

break

edō

ēsse (

§ 128

)

ēdī

ēsus

eat

fundō

fundere

fūdī

fūsus

four

4. Perfect in -ī without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

excūdō

excūdere

excūdī

excūsus

hammer

cōnsīdō

cōnsīdere

cōnsēdī

——

take one's seat

possīdō

possīdere

possēdī

possessus

take possession

accendō

accendere

accendī

accēnsus

kindle

a-scendō

ascendere

ascendī

ascēnsum (est)

climb

dē-fendō

dēfendere

dēfendī

dēfēnsus

defend

pre-hendō

prehendere

prehendī

prehēnsus

seize

īcō

īcere

īcī

ictus

strike

vellō

vellere

vellī

vulsus

pluck

vertō

vertere

vertī

versus

turn

pandō

pandere

pandī

passus

spread

solvō

solvere

solvī

solūtus

loose

vīsō

vīsere

vīsī

vīsus

visit

volvō

volvere

volvī

volūtus

roll

verrō

verrere

verrī

versus

sweep

5. Perfect in -uī.

in-cumbō

incumbere

incubuī

incubitūrus

lean on

gignō

gignere

genuī

genitus

bring forth

molō

molere

moluī

molitus

grind

vomō

vomere

vomuī

vomitus

vomit

fremō

fremere

fremuī

——

snort

gemō

gemere

gemuī

——

sigh

metō

metere

messuī

messus

reap

tremō

tremere

tremuī

——

tremble

strepō

strepere

strepuī

——

rattle

alō

alete

aluī

altus (alitus)

nourish

colō

colere

coluī

cultus

cultivate

incolō

incolere

incoluī

——

inhabit

excolō

excolere

excoluī

excultus

perfect

cōnsulō

cōnsulere

cōnsuluī

cōnsultus

consult

cōnserō

cōnserere

cōnseruī

cōnsertus

join

dēserō

dēserere

dēseruī

dēsertus

desert

disserō

disserere

disseruī

——

discourse

texō

texere

texuī

textus

weave

6. Perfect in -vī.

sinō

sinere

sīvī

situs

allow

desinō

dēsinere

dēsiī

dēsitus

cease

ponō

pōnere

posuī

positus

place

ob-linō

oblinere

oblēvī

oblitus

smear

serō

serere

sēvī

satus

sow

cōnserō

cōnserere

cōnsēvī

cōnsitus

plant

cernō

cernere

——

separate

discernō

discernere

discrēvī

discrētus

distinguish

dēcernō

dēcernere

dēcrēvī

dēcrētus

decide

spernō

spernere

sprēvī

sprētus

scorn

sternō

sternere

strāvī

strātus

spread

prō-sternō

prōsternere

prōstrāvī

prōstrātus

overthrow

petō

petere

petīvī (petiī)

petītus

seek

appetō

appetere

appetīvī

appetītus

long for

terō

terere

trīvī

trītus

rub

quaerō

quaerere

quaesīvī

quaesītus

seek

acquīrō

acquīrere

acquīsīvī

acquīsītus

acquire

arcessō

arcessere

arcessīvī

arcessītus

summon

capessō

capessere

capessīvī

capessītus

seize

lacessō

lacessere

lacessīvī

lacessītus

provoke

7. Used only in Present System.

angō

angere

——

choke

lambō

lambere

——

lick

claudō

claudere

——

be lame

furō

furere

——

rave

vergō

vergere

——

bend

and a few others.

II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.

induō

induere

induī

indūtus

put on

imbuō

imbuere

imbuī

imbūtus

moisten

luō

luere

luī

——

wash

polluō

polluere

polluī

pollūtus

defile

minuō

minuere

minuī

minūtus

lessen

statuō

statuere

statuī

statūtus

set up

cōnstituō

cōnstituere

cōnstituī

cōnstitūtus

determine

suō

suere

suī

sūtus

sew

tribuō

tribuere

tribuī

tribūtus

allot

ruō

ruere

ruī

ruitūrus

fall

dīruō

dīruere

dīruī

dīrutus

destroy

obruō

obruere

obruī

obrutus

overwhelm

acuō

acuere

acuī

——

sharpen

arguō

arguere

arguī

——

accuse

congruō

congruere

congruī

——

agree

metuō

metuere

metuī

——

fear

ab-nuō

abnuere

abnuī

——

decline

re-spuō

respuere

respuī

——

reject

struō

struere

strūxī

strūctus

build

fluō

fluere

flūxi

(flūxus, as Adj.)

flow

III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.

capiō

cupere

cupīvī

cupītus

wish

sapiō

sapere

sapīvī

——

taste

rapiō

rapere

rapuī

raptus

snatch

dīripiō

dīripere

dīripuī

dīreptus

plunder

cōnspiciō

cōnspicere

cōnspexī

cōnspectus

gaze at

aspiciō

aspicere

aspexī

aspectus

behold

illiciō

illicere

illexī

illectus

allure

pelliciō

pellicere

pellexī

pellectus

allure

ēliciō

ēlicere

ēlicuī

ēlicitus

elicit

quatiō

quatere

——

quassus

shake

concutiō

concutere

concussī

concussus

shake

pariō

parere

peperī

partus

bring forth

capiō

capere

cēpī

captus

take

accipiō

accipere

accēpī

acceptus

incipiō

incipere

incēpī

inceptus

begin

faciō

facere

fēcī

factus

make

afficiō

afficere

affēcī

affectus

affect

Passive

, afficior, afficī, affectus sum.

So other prepositional compounds,

perficiō

perficior

;

interficiō

interficior

;

etc.

But—

assuēfaciō

assuēfacere

assuēfēcī

assuēfactus

accustom

Passive

, assuēfiō, assuēfieri, assuēfactus sum.

So also

patefaciō

patefīō

;

calefaciō

calefīō

; and all non-prepositional compounds.

jaciō

jacere

jēcī

jactus

hurl

abiciō

abicere

abjēcī

abjectus

throw away

fodiō

fodere

fōdī

fossus

dig

fugiō

fugere

fūgī

fugitūrus

flee

effugiō

effugere

effūgī

——

escape

IV. VERBS IN -SCŌ.

1. Verbs in -scō from Simple Roots.

poscō

poscere

poposcī

——

demand

discō

discere

didicī

——

learn

pāscō

pāscere

pāvī

pāstus

feed

pāscor

pāscī

pāstus sum

graze

crēscō

crēscere

crēvī

crētus

grow

cōnsuēscō

cōnsuēscere

cōnsuēvī

cōnsuētus

accustom one's self

quiēscō

quiēscere

quiēvī

quiētūrus

be still

adolēscō

adolēscere

adolēvi

adultus

grow up

obsolēscō

obsolēscerē

obsolēvī

——

grow old

nōscō

nōscere

nōvī

——

become acquainted with

ignōscō

ignōscere

ignōvī

ignōtūrus

pardon

agnōscō

agnōscere

agnōvī

agnitus

recognize

cognōscō

cognōscere

cognōvī

cognitus

get acquainted with

2. Verbs in -scō formed from other Verbs.

These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155, 1). When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived.

flōrēscō

flōrēscere

flōruī

begin to bloom

(flōreō)

scīscō

scīscere

scīvī

enact

(scīo)

ārēscō

ārēscere

āruī

become dry

(āreō)

calēscō

calēscere

caluī

become hot

(caleō)

cōnsenēscō

cōnsenēscere

cōnsenuī

grow old

(seneō)

extimēscō

extimēscere

extimuī

fear greatly

(timeō)

ingemīscō

ingemīscere

ingemuī

sigh

(gemō)

adhaerēscō

adhaerēscere

adhaesī

stick

(haereō)

3. Verbs in -scō derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning.

obdūrēscō

obdūrēscere

obdūruī

grow hard

(dūrus)

ēvanēscō

ēvanēscere

ēvinuī

disappear

(vānus)

percrēbrēsco

percrēbrēscere

percrēbruī

grow fresh

(crēber)

mātūrescō

mātūrēscere

mātūruī

grow ripe

(mātūrus)

obmūtēscō

obmūtēscere

obmūtuī

grow dumb

(mūtus)

V. DEPONENTS.

fungor

fungi

fūnctus sum

perform

queror

querī

questus sum

complain

loquor

loquī

locūtus sum

speak

sequor

sequī

secūtus sum

fruor

fruī

fruitūrus

enjoy

perfruor

perfruī

perfrūctus sum

thoroughly enjoy

lābor

lābi

lāpsus sum

glide

amplector

amplectī

amplexus sum

embrace

nītor

nītī

nīsus sum,

nīxus sum

strive

gradior

gradī

gressus sum

walk

patior

patī

passus sum

suffer

perpetior

perpetī

perpessus sum

endure

ūtor

ūtī

ūsus sum

use

morior

morī

mortuus sum

die

adipīscor

adipīscī

adeptus sum

acquire

comminīscor

comminīscī

commentus sum

invent

reminīscor

reminīscī

——

remember

nancīscor

nancīscī

nanctus (nactus) sum

acquire

nāscor

nāscī

nātus sum

be born

oblīvīscor

oblīvīscī

oblītus sum

forget

pacīscor

pacīscī

pactus sum

covenant

proficīscor

proficīscī

profectus sum

set out

ulcīscor

ulcīscī

ultus sum

avenge

īrāscor

īrāscī

(īrātus, as Adj.)

be angry

vescor

vescī

——

eat

Fourth Conjugation.

123. I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VĪ.

audiō

audīre

audīvī

audītus

hear

So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.

sepeliō

sepelīre

sepelīvī

sepultus

bury

II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UĪ.

aperiō

aperīre

aperuī

apertus

open

operiō

operīre

operuī

opertus

cover

saliō

salīre

saluī

——

leap

III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SĪ.

saepiō

saepīre

saepsī

saeptus

hedge in

sanciō

sancīre

sānxī

sānctus

ratify

vinciō

vincīre

vinxī

vinctus

bind

amiciō

amicīre

——

amictus

envelop

fulciō

fulcīre

fulsī

fultus

prop up

referciō

refercīre

refersī

refertus

fill

sarciō

sarcīre

sarsī

sartus

patch

hauriō

haurīre

hausī

haustus

draw

sentiō

sentīre

sēnsī

sēnsus

feel

IV. PERFECT IN -Ī WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

veniō

venīre

vēnī

ventum (est)

come

adveniō

advenīre

advēnī

adventum (est)

arrive

inveniō

invenīre

invēnī

inventus

find

V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.

reperiō

reperīre

repperī

repertus

find

comperiō

comperīre

comperī

compertus

learn

VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.

feriō

ferīre

——

strike

ēsuriō

ēsurīre

——

be hungry

VII. DEPONENTS.

largior

largīrī

largītus sum

bestow

So many others.

experior

experīrī

expertus sum

try

opperior

opperīrī

oppertus sum

await

ōrdior

ōrdīrī

ōrsus sum

begin

orior

orīrī

ortus sum

arise

Orior

usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as

oreris

orĭtur

orĭmur

;

orerer

(Imp. Subj.);

orere

(Imper.).

mētior

mētīrī

mēnsus sum

measure

assentior

assentīrī

assēnsus sum

assent

IRREGULAR VERBS.

124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, dō, edō, ferō, volō, nōlō, mālō, eō, fīō. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-ō), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.

125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are—

absum

abesse

āfuī

am absent

Pres. Partic

. absēns (absentis),

absent

adsum

adesse

adfuī

am present

dēsum

deesse

dēfuī

am lacking

insum

inesse

īnfuī

am in

intersum

interesse

interfuī

am among

praesum

praeesse

praefuī

am in charge of

Pres. Partic

. praesēns (praesentis),

present

obsum

obesse

obfuī

hinder

prōsum

prōdesse

prōfuī

am of advantage

subsum

subesse

subfuī

am underneath

supersum

superesse

superfuī

am left

NOTE.—Prōsum is compounded of prōd (earlier form of prō) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prōsumus; but prōdestis.

126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able) and sum; potuī is from an obsolete potēre.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

possum

posse

potuī

to be able

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

possum, potes, potest;

possumus, potestis, possunt.

Imp.

poteram;

poterāmus.

Fut.

poterō;

poterimus.

Perf.

potuī;

potuimus.

Plup.

potueram;

potuerāmus.

Fut. P.

potuerō;

potuerimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

possim, possīs, possit;

possīmus, possītis, possint.

Imp.

possem;

possēmus.

Perf.

potuerim;

potuerīmus.

Plup.

potuissem;

potuissēmus.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

posse.

Pres.

potēns (

as an adjective

Perf.

potuisse.

127. Dō, I give.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

dō

dăre

dedī

dătus

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

dō, dās, dat;

dămus, dătis, dant.

Imp.

dăbam,

etc.

;

dăbāmus.

Fut.

dăbō,

etc.

;

dăbimus.

Perf.

dedī;

dedimus.

Plup.

dederam;

dederāmus.

Fut. P.

dederō;

dederimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres.

dem;

dēmus.

Imp.

dărem;

dărēmus.

Perf.

dederim;

dederīmus.

Plup.

dedissem;

dedissēmus.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

dā;

dăte.

Fut.

dătō;

dătōte.

dătō.

dantō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

dăre.

dāns.

Perf.

dedisse.

Fut.

dătūrus esse.

dătūrus.

GERUND. SUPINE.

dandī,

etc.

dătum, dătū.

[44] Fully conjugated only in the compounds: exstinguō, restinguō, distinguō.

[45] Only in the compounds: ēvādō, invādō, pervādō.

1. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dărī, dătur, dărētur, etc.

2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perduit, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of similar meaning.

128. Edō, I eat.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

edō

ēsse

ēdī

ēsus

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres.

edō,

edimus,

ēs,

ēstis,

ēst;

edunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Imp.

ēssem,

ēssēmus,

ēssēs,

ēssētis,

ēsset;

ēssent.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

ēs;

ēste.

Fut.

ēstō;

ēstōte.

ēstō;

eduntō.

INFINITIVE. Pres.

ēsse.

Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. 3d Sing

. ēstur.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. 3d Sing

. ēssētur.

1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in ēs-, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.

2. Note comedō, comēsse, comēdī, comēsus or comēstus, consume.

3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -īs, -it, etc., less often edam, -ās, etc.

129. Ferō, I bear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

ferō

ferre

tulī

lātus

Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

ferō, fers, fert;

ferimus, fertis, ferunt.

[46]

Imp.

ferēbam;

ferēbāmus.

Fut.

feram;

ferēmus.

Perf.

tulī;

tulimus.

Plup.

tuleram;

tulerāmus.

Fut. P.

tulerō;

tulerimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

feram;

ferāmus.

Imp.

ferrem;

ferrēmus.

Perf.

tulerim;

tulerīmus.

Plup.

tulissem;

tulissēmus.

IMPERATIVE

Pres.

fer;

ferte.

Fut.

fertō;

fertōte.

fertō;

feruntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

ferre.

Pres.

ferēns.

Perf.

tulisse.

Fut.

lātūrus esse.

Fut.

lātūrus.

GERUND. SUPINE.

Gen.

ferendī.

Dat.

ferendō.

Acc.

ferendum.

Acc.

lātum.

Abl.

ferendō.

Abl.

lātū.

Passive Voice.

feror

ferrī

lātus sum

to be borne

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

feror, ferris, fertur;

ferimur, feriminī, feruntur.

Imp.

ferēbar;

ferēbāmur.

Fut.

ferar;

ferēmur.

Perf.

lātus sum;

lātī sumus.

Plup.

lātus eram;

lātī erāmus.

Fut. P.

lātus erō;

lātī erimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

ferar;

ferāmur.

Imp.

ferrer;

ferrēmur.

Perf.

lātus sim;

lātī sīmus.

Plup.

lātus essem;

lātī essēmus.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

ferre;

ferimimī.

Fut.

fertor;

——

fertor;

feruntor.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

ferrī.

Perf.

lātus esse.

Perf.

lātus.

Fut.

lātum īrī.

Fut.

ferendus.

So also the Compounds—

afferō

afferre

attulī

allātus

bring toward

auferō

auferre

abstulī

ablātus

take away

cōnferō

cōnferre

contulī

collātus

compare

differō

differre

distulī

dīlātus

put off

efferō

efferre

extulī

ēlātus

carry out

īnferō

īnferre

intulī

illātus

bring against

offerō

offerre

obtulī

oblātus

present

referō

referre

rettulī

relātus

bring back

NOTE.—The forms sustulī and sublātus belong to tollō.

130. volō, nōlō, mālō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

volō

velle

voluī

to wish.

nōlō

nōlle

nōluī

to be unwilling.

mālō

mālle

māluī

to prefer.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres.

volō,

nōlō,

mālō,

vīs,

nōn vīs,

māvīs,

vult;

nōn vult;

māvult;

volumus,

nōlumus,

mālumus,

vultis,

nōn vultis,

māvultis,

volunt.

nōlunt.

mālunt.

Imp.

volēbam.

nōlēbam.

mālēbam.

Fut.

volam.

nōlam.

mālam.

Perf.

voluī.

nōluī.

māluī.

Plup.

volueram.

nōlueram.

mālueram.

Fut. P.

voluerō.

nōluerō.

māluerō.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

velim, -īs, -it,

etc.

nōlim.

mālīm.

Inf.

vellem, -ēs, -et,

etc.

nōllem.

māllem.

Perf.

voluerim.

nōluerim.

māluerim.

Pluf.

voluissem.

nōluissem.

māluissem.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

nōlī;

nōlīte.

Fut.

nōlītō;

nōlītōte.

nōlītō;

nōluntō.

INFINITIVE.

Pres.

velle.

nōlle.

mālle.

Perf.

voluisse.

nōluisse.

māluisse

PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

volēns

nōlēns.

——

131. Fīō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

fīō

fīerī

factus sum

to become

be made

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR,

PLURAL.

Pres.

fīō, fīs, fit;

fīmus, fītis, fīunt.

Inf.

fīēbam;

fīēbāmus.

Fut.

fīam;

fīēmus.

Perf.

factus sum;

factī sumus.

Pluf.

factus eram;

factī erāmus.

Fut. P.

factus erō;

factī erimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres.

fīam;

fīāmus.

Imp.

fierem;

fierēmus.

Perf.

factus sim;

factī sīmus.

Plup.

factus essem;

factī essēmus.

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

fī;

fīte.

INFINITIVE.

PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

fierī.

Perf.

factus esse.

Perf.

factus.

Fut.

factum īrī.

Ger.

faciendus.

NOTE.—A few isolated forms of compounds of fīō occur; as, dēfit lacks; īnfit, begins.

132. Eō.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

eō

īre

īvī

itum (est)

to go

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

eō, īs, it;

īmus, ītis, eunt.

Imp.

ībam;

ībāmus.

Fut.

ībō;

ībimus.

Perf.

īvī (iī);

īvimus (iimus).

Plup.

īveram (ieram);

īverāmus (ierāmus)

Fut. P.

īverō (ierō);

īverimus (ierimus).

SUBJUNCTIVE.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

eam;

eāmus.

Inf.

īrem;

īrēmus.

Perf.

īverim (ierim);

īverīmus (ierīmus).

Pluf.

īvissem (iissem, īssem);

īvissēmus (iissēmus, īssēmus).

IMPERATIVE.

Pres.

ī;

īte.

Fut.

ītō;

ītōte,

ītō;

euntō.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.

Pres.

īre.

Pres.

iēns.

Perf.

īvisse (īsse).

(

Gen.

euntis.)

Fut.

itūrus esse.

Fut.

itūrus.

Gerundive

, eundum.

GERUND.

SUPINE.

eundī,

etc.

itum, itū.

1. Transitive compounds of eō admit the full Passive inflection; as adeor, adīris, adītur, etc.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important:—

133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.

Coepī

I have begun. Meminī

I remember

Ōdī

I hate

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Perf.

coepī.

meminī.

ōdī.

Plup.

coeperam.

memineram.

ōderam.

Fut. P.

coeperō.

meminerō.

ōderō.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Perf.

coeperim.

meminerim.

ōderim.

Pluf.

coepissem.

meminissem.

ōdissem.

IMPERATIVE. Sing.

mementō;

Plur.

mementōte.

INFINITIVE.

Perf.

coepisse.

meminisse.

ōdisse.

Fut.

coeptūrus esse.

ōsūrus esse.

PARTICIPLE.

Perf.

coeptus,

begun

ōsus.

Fut.

coeptūrus.

ōsūrus.

1. When coepī governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est; as, amārī coeptus est, he began to be loved.

2. Note that meminī and ōdī, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, I remembered; ōderō, I shall hate.

134. Inquam, I say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

inquam,

——

inquis,

——

inquit;

inquiunt.

Fut.

——

inquiēs,

——

inquiet.

——

Perf. 3d Sing.

inquit.

135. Ajō, I say.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL

Pres.

ajō,

——

aīs,

——

ait;

ajunt.

Imp.

ajēbam,

ajēbāmus,

ajēbās,

ajēbātis,

ajēbat;

ajēbant.

Perf 3d Sing.

aït.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres 3d Sing.

ajat.

NOTE.—For aīsne, do you mean? aīn is common.

136. Fārī, to speak.

This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has—

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Pres.

——

fātur.

——

Fut.

fābor,

——

fābitur.

——

Impv.

fāre.

Inf.

fārī.

Pres. Partic.

fantis, fantī,

etc. Gerund

fandī;

D. and Abl.

, fandō.

Gerundive

fandus.

NOTE.—Forms of fārī are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as,— affātur, he addresses; praefāmur, we say in advance.

137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.

1. Queō, quīre, quīvī, to be able, and nequeō, nequīre, nequīvī, to be unable, are inflected like eō, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms.

2. Quaesō, I entreat; quaesumus, we entreat.

3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.); give me, tell me.

4. Salvē, salvēte, hail. Also Infinitive, salvēre.

5. Havē (avē), havēte, hail. Also Infinitive, havēre.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, mē pudet hōc fēcisse, lit. it shames me to have done this; hōc decet, this is fitting. Here belong—

I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,—

fulget

fulsit

it lightens

tonat

tonuit

it thunders

grandinat

——

it hails

ningit

ninxit

it snows

pluit

it rains

II. Special Verbs.

paenitet

paenitēre

paenituit

it repents

piget

pigēre

piguit

it grieves

pudet

pudēre

puduit

it causes shame

taedet

taedēre

taeduit

it disgusts

miseret

miserēre

miseruit

it causes pity

libet

libēre

libuit

it pleases

licet

licēre

licuit

it is lawful

oportet

oportēre

oportuit

it is fitting

decet

decēre

decuit

it is becoming

dēdecet

dēdecēre

dēdecuit

it is unbecoming

rēfert

rēferre

rētulit

it concerns

III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.

cōnstat

cōnstāre

cōnstitit

it is evident

praestat

praestāre

praestitit

it is better

juvat

juvāre

jūvit

it delights

appāret

appārēre

appāruit

it appears

placet

placēre

placuit

(placitum est)

it pleases

accēdit

accēdere

accessit

it is added

accidit

accidere

accidit

it happens

contingit

contingere

contigit

it happens

ēvenit

ēvenīre

ēvēnit

it turns out

interest

interesse

interfuit

it concerns

IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,—

ītur

lit.

it is gone

i.e. some one goes

curritur

lit.

it is run

i.e. some one runs

ventum est

lit.

it has been come

i.e. some one has come

veniendum est

lit.

it must be come

i.e. somebody must come

pugnārī potest

lit.

it can be fought

i.e. somebody can fight

PART III.

PARTICLES.

139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

ADVERBS.

140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations have already been given above (§ 76). The following TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important:—

ELATIVE AND

NTERROGATIVE

EMONSTRATIVE

NDEFINITE

ubi

where; where

hīc

here

ibi

illīc

istīc

there

alicubī

ūsquam

ūspiam

somewhere

quō

whither; whither

hūc

hither

eō

istūc

illūc

thither

aliquō

to some place

unde

whence; whence

hinc

hence

inde

istinc

illinc

thence

alicunde

from somewhere

quā

where; where

hāc

by this way

eā

istāc

illāc

by that way

aliquā

by some way

cum

when

quandō

when

nunc

now

tum

tunc

then

aliquandō

umquam

sometime

ever

quotiēns

as often as

;

how often

totiēns

so often

aliquotiēns

some number of times

quam

as much as

;

how much

tam

so much

aliquantum

somewhat

PREPOSITIONS.

141. Prepositions show relations of words. The following Prepositions govern the Accusative:—

adversus

against

adversum

toward

against

ante

before

apud

with

near

circā

around

circiter

about

circum

around

cis

this side of

citrā

this side of

contrā

against

ergā

toward

extrā

outside

īnfrā

below

inter

between

intrā

within

jūxtā

near

on account of

penes

in the hands of

per

through

pōne

behind

post

after

praeter

past

prope

near

propter

on account of

secundum

after

subter

beneath

super

over

suprā

above

trāns

across

ultrā

beyond

versus

toward

1. Ūsque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as,—

ūsque ad urbem, even to the city.

2. Versus always follows its case; as,—

Rōmam versus, toward Rome.

It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,—

ad urbem versus, toward the city.

3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives proximus, proximē, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,—

Ubiī proximē Rhēnum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine;

propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.

142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:—

abs

from

absque

without

cōram

in the presence of

cum

with

dē

from

concerning

from out of

prae

before

prō

in front of

for

sine

without

tenus

up to

1. Ā, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we find sometimes ā, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before tē, and ā is admissible even there.

2. Ē, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find sometimes ē, sometimes ex.

3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, up to the breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrōrum tenus, as far as the lips.

4. Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus:—

mēcum

tēcum

sēcum

nōbīscum

vōbīscum

quōcum

cum quō

quācum

cum quā

quibuscum

cum quibus

On quīcum, see

§ 89

, Footnote

143. Two Prepositions, in, in, into, and sub, under, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest; as,—

in urbem, into the city;

in urbe, in the city.

1. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.

144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously; contrā, on the other hand, etc.

2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions; as,—

[46] It will be observed that not all the forms of ferō lack the connecting vowel. Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation.

[27] An ablative quī occurs in quīcum, with whom.

clam, prīdiē, with the Accusative.

procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.

3. Anástrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called Anástrophe; as,—

eī, quōs inter erat, those among whom he was.

Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For Coördinate Conjunctions, see §§ 341 ff. Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in connection with Subordinate Clauses.

2. Interjections express emotion. Thus:—

1. Surprise; as, ēn, ecce, ō.

2. Joy; as, iō, euoe.

3. Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, ēheu, vae, prō.

4. Calling; as, heus, eho.

PART IV.

WORD-FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.

A. NOUNS.

1. Nouns derived from Verbs.

147. 1. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trīx, denotes the agent; as,—

victor

victrīx

victor

;

dēfēnsor

defender

NOTE.—The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,—

gladiātor, gladiator (from gladius).

2. The suffix -or (originally -ōs) denotes an activity or a condition; as,—

amor

love

;

timor

fear

;

dolor

pain

3. The suffixes -tiō (-siō), Gen. -ōnis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -ūs, denote an action as in process; as,—

vēnātiō, hunting; obsessiō, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus, running.

NOTE.—Rarer endings with the same force are:—

a) -tūra, -sūra; as,—

sepultūra, burial; mēnsūra, measuring.

b) -ium; as,—

gaudium, rejoicing.

c) -īdō; as,—

cupīdō, desire.

4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the means or place of an action; as,—

lūmen

(

lūc-s-men

light

;

vocābulum

word

;

ōrnāmentum

ornament

;

documentum

proof

;

sepulcrum

grave

;

arātrum

plough

;

vehiculum

carriage

2. Nouns derived from Nouns.

148. 1. Diminutives end in—

-ulus

(

-ula

-ulum

)

-olus

(

-ola

-olum

), after a vowel

-culus

(

-cula

-culum

)

-ellus

(

-ella

-ellum

)

-illus

(

-illa

-illum

)

as,—

nīdulus

little nest

(

nīdus

);

virgula

wand

(

virga

);

oppidulum

little town

(

oppidum

);

fīliolus

little son

(

fīlius

);

opusculum

little work

(

opus

);

tabella

tablet

(

tabula

);

lapillus

pebble

(

lapis

NOTE 1.—It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived.

NOTE 2.—The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminutive suffix, viz., -lo-. Thus:—

agellus

field

for

ager-lus

;

lapillus

pebble

for

lapid-lus

2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection of such persons or their function; as,—

collēgium, a corporation, body of colleagues (collēga);

sacerdōtium, priestly function (sacerdōs).

3. The suffixes -ārium, -ētum, -īle designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abundance; as,—

columbārium

dove-cote

(

columba

);

olīvētum

olive-orchard

(

olīva

);

ovīle

sheep-fold

(

ovis

4. The suffix -ātus denotes official position or honor; as,—

cōnsulātus, consulship (cōnsul).

5. The suffix -īna appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried on; as,—

doctrīna, teaching (doctor, teacher);

medicīna, the art of healing (medicus, physician);

sūtrīna, cobbler's shop (sūtor, cobbler).

6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of ..., daughter of .... They have the following suffixes:—

a) Masculines: -idēs, -adēs, -īdēs; as, Priamidēs, son of Priam; Aeneadēs, son of Aeneas; Pēlīdēs, son of Peleus.

b) Feminines: -ēis, -is, -ias; as, Nērēis, daughter of Nereus; Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas.

3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.

149. The suffixes -tās (-itās), -tūdō (-itūdō), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities; as,—

bonitās, goodness; celeritās, swiftness; magnitūdō, greatness; audācia, boldness; amīcitia, friendship.

B. ADJECTIVES.

1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.

150. 1. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle; as,—

tremebundus

trembling

;

jūcundus

(

juvō

pleasing

2. The suffixes -āx and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency, mostly a faulty one; as,—

loquāx

loquacious

;

crēdulus

credulous

3. The suffix -idus denotes a state; as,—

calidus

hot

;

timidus

timid

;

cupidus

eager

4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive sense; as,—

fragilis, fragile (i.e. capable of being broken);

docilis, docile.

2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.

a) From Common Nouns.

151. 1. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or materials; as,—

aureus

of gold

;

ferreus

of iron

;

fāginus

of beech

2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -īlis, -ālis, -āris, -ārius, -nus, -ānus, -īnus, -īvus, -ēnsis signify belonging to, connected with; as,—

ōrātōrius

oratorical

;

legiōnārius

legionary

;

bellicus

pertaining to war

;

paternus

paternal

;

cīvīlis

civil

;

urbānus

of the city

;

rēgālis

regal

;

marīnus

marine

;

cōnsulāris

consular

;

aestīvus

pertaining to summer

;

circēnsis

belonging to the circus

3. The suffixes -ōsus and -lentus denote fullness; as,—

perīculōsus

full of danger

dangerous

;

glōriōsus

glorious

;

opulentus

wealthy

4. The suffix -tus has the force of provided with; as,—

barbātus

bearded

;

stellātus

set with stars

b) From Proper Names.

152. 1. Names of persons take the suffixes: -ānus, -iānus, -īnus; as,—

Catōniānus

belonging to Cato

;

Plautīnus

belonging to Plautus

2. Names of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,—

Germānicus

German

;

Thrācius

Thracian

3. Names of places take the suffixes -ānus, -īnus, -ēnsis, -aeus, -ius; as,—

Rōmānus

Roman

;

Athēniēnsis

Athenian

;

Amerīnus

of Ameria

;

Smyrnaeus

of Smyrna

;

Corinthius

Corinthian

NOTE.— -ānus and -ēnsis, appended to names of countries, designate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous; as,—

bellum Āfricānum, a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa.

bellum Hispāniēnse, a war carried on in Spain.

legiōnes Gallicānae, (Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.

3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,—

parvolus, little;

misellus (passer), poor little (sparrow);

pauperculus, needy.

4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tīnus, -tĭnus; as,—

hodiernus

of to-day

(

hodiē

);

hesternus

of yesterday

(

herī

);

intestīnus

internal

(

intus

);

diūtinus

long-lasting

(

diū

C. VERBS.

1. Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -scō, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action; as,—

labāscō

begin to totter

(from

labō

);

horrēscō

grow rough

(from

horreō

);

tremēscō

begin to tremble

(from

tremō

);

obdormīscō

fall asleep

(from

dormiō

2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -tō or -sō. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō, as we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are—

jactō

toss about

brandish

(from

jaciō

hurl

);

cursō

run hither and thither

(from

currō

run

);

volitō

flit about

(from

volō

fly

a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,—

cantitō

sing over and over

(

cantō

);

cursitō

keep running about

(

cursō

);

ventitō

keep coming

b. agitō, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.

3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -uriō; as,—

ēsuriō

desire to eat

am hungry

(

edō

);

parturiō

want to bring forth

am in labor

(

pariō

2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are—

a) From Nouns:—

fraudō

defraud

(

fraus

);

vestiō

clothe

(

vestis

);

flōreō

bloom

(

flōs

b) From Adjectives:—

līberō

free

(

līber

);

saeviō

be fierce

(

saevus

D. ADVERBS.

157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im; as,—

certātim

emulously

(

certō

);

cursim

in haste

(

currō

);

statim

immediately

(

stō

2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:—

a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -ātim; as,—

gradātim, step by step;

paulātim, gradually;

virītim, man by man.

b) With the suffix -tus; as,—

antīquitus, of old;

rādīcitus, from the roots.

c) With the suffix -ter; as,—

breviter, briefly.

II. COMPOUNDS.

158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound; the first member expresses some modification of this.

2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:—

a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7, 1.)

b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often appears as ĭ where we should expect ŏ or ă; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems ĭ is often inserted; as,—

signifer, standard-bearer;

tubicen, trumpeter;

magnanimus, high-minded;

mātricīda, matricide.

159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.

1. Nouns:—

a) Preposition + Noun; as,—

dē-decus, disgrace;

pro-avus, great-grandfather.

b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—

agri-cola, farmer;

frātri-cīda, fratricide.

2. Adjectives:—

a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,—

per-magnus, very great;

sub-obscūrus, rather obscure;

ā-mēns, frantic.

b) Adjective + Noun; as,—

magn-animus, great-hearted;

celeri-pēs, swift-footed.

c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—

parti-ceps, sharing;

morti-fer, death-dealing.

3. Verbs:—

The second member is always a verb. The first may be—

a) A Noun; as,—

aedi-ficō, build.

b) An Adjective; as,—

ampli-ficō, enlarge.

c) An Adverb; as,—

male-dīcō, rail at.

d) Another Verb; as,—

cale-faciō, make warm.

e) A Preposition; as,—

ab-jungō, detach;

re-ferō, bring back;

dis-cernō, distinguish;

ex-spectō, await.

NOTE.—Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:

ambi- (amb-), around;

dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder;

por-, forward;

red- (re-), back;

sēd- (sē-), apart from;

vē-, without.

4. Adverbs:—

These are of various types; as,—

anteā, before;

īlīcō (in locō), on the spot;

imprīmīs, especially;

obviam, in the way.

PART V.

SYNTAX.

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:—

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy is writing.

2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,—

quid puer scrībit, what is the boy writing?

3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,—

quot librōs scrībit, how many books he writes!

4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,—

scrībe, write!

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as—quis, quī, quālis, quantus, quot, quotiēns, quō, quā, etc. Thus:—

quis venit, who comes? quam dīū manēbit, how long will he stay?

2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced—

a) By nōnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,—

nōnne vidētis, do you not see?

b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,—

num exspectās, do you expect? (i.e. you don't expect, do you?)

c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,—

vidēsne, do you see?

A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the context; as,—

sēnsistīne, did you not perceive?

d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation; as,—

tū in jūdicum cōnspectum venīre audēs, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges?

3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? (= no one doubts).

4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles:—

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;

—— ... an.

If the second member is negative, annōn (less often necne) is used. Examples:—

utrum honestum est an turpe

}

honestumne est an turpe

}

is it honorable or base? honestum est an turpe

}

suntne dī annōn

are there gods or not?

a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nōnne, or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,—

Ā rēbus gerendīs abstrahit senectūs. Quibus? An eīs quae juventūte geruntur et vīrībus? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?

5. Answers.

a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vērō, sānē, or by repetition of the verb; as,—

'vīsne locum mūtēmus?' 'sānē'. 'Shall we change the place?' 'Certainly.'

'estīsne vōs lēgatī?' 'sumus.' 'Are you envoys?' 'Yes.'

b. The answer NO is expressed by nōn, minimē, minimē vērō, or by repeating the verb with a negative; as,—

'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nōn.' 'Has it passed?' 'No.'

'estne frāter intus?' 'nōn est.' 'Is your brother within?' 'No.'

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus puer librōs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.

165. COÖRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COÖRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit the two clauses are Coördinate; but in puer librōs legit quōs pater scrībit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be—

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy writes;

hīc scrībit, this man writes.

b) An Infinitive; as,—

decōrum est prō patriā morī, to die for one's county is a noble thing.

c) A Clause; as,—

opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, it happened opportunely that you saw.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,—

scrībō, I write; videt, he sees.

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as,—

ego scrībō et tū legis, I write, and you read.

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,—

rēctē ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; consul profectus (sc. est), the consul set out.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,—

Cicerō ōrātor fuit, Cicero was an orator;

Numa creātus est rēx, Numa was elected king.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,—

philosophia est vītae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are—

a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,—

Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, Croesus did not always remain king.

b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,—

Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, Romulus was called king;

habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,—

Cicerō cōnsul, Cicero, the Consul;

urbs Rōma, the city Rome.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,—

opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, the works of Cicero, the orator;

apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the father of history.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,—

assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, flattery, the promoter of evils.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,—

Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of Greece.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,—

mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,—

crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, believe me, judges.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus Albānus, hear ye, Alban people!

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, O son, alone the source of my great power.

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:—

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,—

cōnsulem interfēcit, he slew the consul;

legō librum, I read the book.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,—

librum scrīpsī, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, he constructs a temple.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely; as,—

rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, it is rumored that my son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in—

parentēs amāmus, we love our parents;

mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:—

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:—

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,—

hostēs circumstāre, to surround the enemy;

urbem praeterīre, to pass by the city;

mūrōs trānscendere, to climb over the walls.

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,—

adīre urbem, to visit the city;

peragrāre Italiam, to travel through Italy;

inīre magistrātum, to take office;

subīre perīculum, to undergo danger.

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as,—

queror fātum, I lament my fate;

doleō ejus mortem, I grieve at his death;

rīdeō tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.

So also lūgeō, maereō, mourn; gemō, bemoan; horreō, shudder, and others.

c) The impersonals decet, it becomes; dēdecet, it is unbecoming; juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,—

mē decet haec dīcere, it becomes me to say this.

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object; as,—

galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet;

cīnctus tempora hederā, having bound his temples with ivy;

nōdō sinus collēcta, having gathered her dress in a knot.

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as—

librum scrībō, I write a book;

domum aedificō, I build a house.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:—

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,—

haec gemēbat, he made these moans;

idem glōriārī, to make the same boast;

eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.

b) A Neuter Adjective,—particularly Adjectives of number or amount,—multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,—

multa egeō, I have many needs;

pauca studet, he has few interests;

multum valet, he has great strength;

nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.

NOTE.—In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as—

minitantem vāna, making vain threats;

acerba tuēns, giving a fierce look;

dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,—

multum sunt in vēnātiōne, they are much engaged in hunting.

a. So also plūrimum, very greatly; plērumque, generally; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,—

sempiternam servitūtem serviat, let him serve an everlasting slavery;

vītam dūram vīxī, I have lived a hard life.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,—

stadium currit, he runs a race;

Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling; as,—

piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea;

ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.

Two Accusatives—Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,—

mē hērēdem fēcit, he made me heir.

Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also—

eum jūdicem cēpēre, they took him as judge;

urbem Rōmam vocāvit, he called the city Rome;

sē virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,—

hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, covetousness renders men blind;

Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, Apollo adjudged Socrates the wisest man.

a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,—

urbs Rōma vocāta est, the city was called Rome.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and efficiō, for example, never take it.

Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:—

a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as,—

ōtium dīvōs rogat, he asks the gods for rest;

mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, you demand two speeches of me.

So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,—

opem ā tē poscō, I demand aid of you.

b) Verbs of teaching (doceō and its compounds); as,—

tē litterās doceō, I teach you your letters.

c) Verbs of inquiring; as,—

tē haec rogō, I ask you this;

tē sententiam rogō, I ask you your opinion.

d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,—

hōc tē moneō, I give you this advice;

mē id accūsās, you bring this accusation against me;

id cōgit nōs nātūra, nature compels us (to) this.

e) One Verb of concealing, cēlō; as,—

nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, I have not concealed the conversation from you.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,—

omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments;

rogātus sum sententiam, I was asked my opinion;

multa ādmonēmur, we are given many admonitions.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.